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Emergence of the Mughal Empire in India
Compiled By: Syed Ali Shahbaz
On April 19, 1451 AD, with the abdication of Alam Shah, the last king of the Seyyed Dynasty of North India, the ambitious Pashto warrior, Bahlol Lodi ascended the throne of Delhi as Bahlol Shah Ghazi. The dynasty founded by him lasted 75 years, ending with the defeat and death of his grandson, Ibrahim Lodi in the historical Battle of Panipat in 1526 against the Mughal conqueror Zaheer od-Din Mohammad Babar.
The Lodis patronized Persian language and culture. Several histories were written and poetical works composed during their rule, such as the Mathnavi Mehr va Mah. The second king, Sikandar Lodi, had medical books translated into Persian from Sanskrit.
On April 20, 1526 AD, the last ruler of the Afghan Dynasty of northern India, Ibrahim Lodhi, was defeated and killed in the First Battle of Panipat near Delhi, by the Central Asian invader, Mohammad Zaheer od-Din, Babur, who established the Mughal Dynasty that ushered in the golden age of Muslim rule in the subcontinent. Babur, whose grave is in Kabul, which was his capital, was a great grandson of the fearsome Turkic conqueror, Amir Timur, and hence the Mughals are often called Timurids.
Unlike their ferocious ancestor, Babur and his successors were highly cultured, patronized Persian art, literature and poetry, and maintained excellent relations with the Safavid Dynasty of Iran through frequent exchange of ambassadors and men of learning. The Mughal Empire reached its peak during the 50-year rule of the 6th Emperor, Mohammad Alamgir Aurangzeb, covering all of today's India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and western Afghanistan.
Thereafter it weakened and shrunk to Delhi and its surroundings, until the British colonialists dethroned the last monarch, Bahadur Shah Zafar in 1857. Babur, besides being a poet in both Persian and his native Chaghtai Turkic, was inventor of the Baburi style of Arabic calligraphy, in which he wrote a copy of the holy Qur'an, which is kept in the Qur'an Museum of the holy shrine of Imam Reza (AS) in Mashhad, Iran.
The Battle of Khanwa
On March 27, 1527 AD, the Battle of Khanwa, was fought near the village of Khanwa, about 60 km west of Agra. It was the second major battle fought by the first Mughal Emperor Zaheer od-Din Mohammad Babar after the Battle of Panipat a year before, and firmly established his rule in northern India. As the Mughal Empire expanded, it faced new opponents especially in the regions around Agra and inside Rajputana. After defeating Ibrahim Lodi, Babar faced many Lodi warriors including Sikandar Lodi and his son Mahmud Lodi who rallied behind the Muslim Rajput ruler, Raja Hasan Khan Mewatpatti, of Mewat, who in turn was supported by the Rana Sanga, the Hindu Rajput ruler. The Hindu Rajputs and Babar's Muslim opponents gathered a formidable army, but were soundly defeated.
The Ottoman fleet defeated the Portuguese fleet in a naval battle near Gujrat coast
On 8th of the Islamic month of Jamadi as-Sani in 937 AH, corresponding to 1531 AD, the Ottoman fleet defeated the Portuguese fleet composed of 190 warships and 210 ships carrying 26,000 soldiers in a naval battle near Diu Island, 250 km north of Bombay. Diu Island which belonged to the Sultan of Gujarat was liberated from Portuguese occupation and handed over to him by the Ottoman Admiral, Mustafa Bayram. It is worth recalling that because of the Portuguese raids on the western coasts of India, the Sultans of Bijapur and Gujarat had sought cooperation with the Mamluks of Egypt and the Ottomans, resulting in the First Battle of Chaul in 1509 which the Muslims won because of their greater fire power. Thereafter the two sides fought a series of seesaw naval battles for almost the next fifty years, during which both were exhausted, with the Ottomans withdrawing from the Indian Ocean. The “Mirat-e Sikandari”, a Persian history of the Indian Muslim Kingdom of Gujarat details some of these battles. Among the heroes of these battles were Amir Hussain al-Kurdi of Egypt and Malik Ayyaz, a Russian convert to Islam in the service of the Sultan of Gujarat.
The Second Mughal Emperor of Hindustan, Naseer od-Din Mohammad Humayun
On March 17, 1508 AD, the Second Mughal Emperor of Hindustan (northern subcontinent), Naseer od-Din Mohammad Humayun, was born in Kabul (capital of present day Afghanistan) to Zaheer od-Din Babar. As an 18-year old he accompanied his father in the conquest of Hindustan and four years later succeeded to the throne of Delhi, while his step-brother Kamran Mirza, obtained the sovereignty of Kabul and Lahore. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods, in addition to his addiction to opium, made him lose the kingdom ten years later to the Pashtun adventurer, Sher Shah Suri. He fled to Safavid Iran, where he was cordially received by Shah Tahmasp I, who provided him aid to regain the Mughal Empire in 1555.
Humayun's return from Iran, accompanied by a large retinue of Iranian noblemen, signaled an important change in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature. His most noted achievement was in the sphere of painting. His devotion to the early Safavid School, developed during his stay in Iran, led him to recruit Persian painters of merit to accompany him back to India. These artists laid the foundation of the Mughal style which emerged from its Persian chrysalis as an indigenous achievement in which Indian elements blended harmoniously with the traditions of Iran and Central Asia. Even Humayun's tomb, built by his widow, Hamida Bano Begum (daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, an Iranian Shi’ite Muslim descended from the mystic Shaikh Ahmad Jami of Torbat-e Jam in Khorasan), fits into the Iranian tradition of imperial mausoleums – a tradition that can be seen, for example, in Uljayatu's tomb at Sultaniyya and Timur's at Samarqand.
It is said Humayun had embraced the school of the Prophet’s Ahl al-Bayt. He was succeeded by his son, Akbar. He died in Delhi in 1556, as a result of a fatal blow to his head, three days after tumbling down the stairs of his library with his arms full of books, when he caught his foot in his robe, while bowing in reverence on hearing the call of the muezzin for prayer. He was succeeded by his able son, Akbar Shah.
The Fasli Solar Hijri Calendar was adopted in India by the Mughal Emperor, Mohammad Jalal od-Din Akbar
On March 28, 1556 AD, corresponding to 963 AH the Fasli Solar Hijri Calendar was adopted in India by the Mughal Emperor, Mohammad Jalal od-Din Akbar on the basis of the Iranian solar hijri calendar that starts with Nowrouz or the Spring Equinox. Fasli which means harvest is derived from the Arabic term for division, which in India was applied to the groupings of the seasons. Fasli Calendar was introduced basically for land revenue and records purposes in northern India. Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan, introduced the Fasli Calendar in 1630 AD to the Deccan or South India.
This calendar, which follows all the 12 Iranian months of Farvardin, Ordibehesht, Khordad etc, was continued as the official calendar of the Asef Jahi Dynasty of Hyderabad State, until its annexation to India in 1948. Even after annexation by India, the last Muslim ruler, Osman Ali Khan Asaf Jah VII, who died in 1967, used to follow and mention Fasli Calendar in his official sanctions and records in both Persian and Urdu. Currently the Andhra Pradesh State Waqf (Endowment) Board and the Nizam Trust follows the Fasli solar hijri Calendar simultaneously with the Gregorian and Islamic lunar hijri calendars to maintain records. The governments of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu still follow the Fasli solar hijri year, as per its 12 Iranian months, in all their revenue and judiciary purposes.
Fourth Grand Mughal Emperor, Noor od-Din Jahangir
On 8th of the Islamic month of Jamadi as-Sani in 1014 AH, Prince Saleem succeeded his father, Akbar the Great, as the Fourth Grand Mughal Emperor of the northern subcontinent and eastern Afghanistan with the title, Noor od-Din Jahangir. He ruled for 23 years, mostly with the assistance of his Iranian wife, Noor Jahan, and maintained excellent relations with Shah Abbas the Great of Iran. Jahangir was also a poet and writer in both Persian and his native Ghaghtai Turkic. The bleak record of his rule, however, was martyrdom of the famous Iranian Islamic scholar in Agra, Qazi Seyyed Noorollah Shoushtari, the author of such famous books as “Majalis al-Momineen” and “Ahqaq al-Haq”. He was under the influence of alcohol when he signed the decree drafted by jealous court mullahs. Later he rued his decision and with the help of his wife, he executed the plotters for the murder of Qazi Shoushtari, who is famous in India amongst the followers of the Prophet’s Ahl al-Bayt as Shaheed Thalleth (Third Martyr).
Dara Shukoh, the eldest son and unfortunate heir apparent of the 5th Grand Mughal Emperor
On March 20, 1615 AD, Dara Shukoh, the eldest son and unfortunate heir apparent of the 5th Grand Mughal Emperor of the northern parts of the Subcontinent, Shah Jahan, was born in Ajmer to his beloved wife of Iranian origin Arjmand Bano Begum Mumtaz Mahal– whose tomb is the Taj Mahal, one of the 7 Wonders of the World.
His name in Persian means "Possessing the Magnificence of Darius". He was 12, when his grandfather, Emperor Jahangir, died, and his father succeeded as emperor. In 1642 at the age of 27, he was formally confirmed as heir and promoted to the command of 20,000-foot and 20,000 horse – a matter that made his brothers jealous and some years later led to the breakout of the War of Succession in which he was defeated and killed by his younger brother Prince Mohi od-Din (Emperor Aurangzeb).
The scholarly Dara, who was well versed in Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit languages, was a follower of the Iranian mystic Sarmad Kashani. He completed the translation of 50 Upanishads from its original Sanskrit into Persian in 1657 and named it “Sirr-e-Akbar” (The Great Mystery). His most famous work is the “Majma’ al-Bahrain” (The Confluence of the Two Seas) – a philosophical work in verse which has been published in Iran. The other books written by him in Persian are “Safinat al-Awliya”, “Sakinat ul-Awliya” and his divan titled “Iksir-e Azam”.
Aurangzeb Alamgir, the 6th and last of the Grand Mughal Emperors
On March 3, 1707 AD, Aurangzeb Alamgir, the 6th and last of the Grand Mughal Emperors (although the dynasty continued), died in his capital Aurangabad and was buried in nearby Kholdabad, after a reign of 50 years, during which he expanded the rule of his house to its zenith by conquering the whole of south India. He thus ruled over an empire that today includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the eastern half of Afghanistan. Son of Shah Jahan (builder of the fabulous Taj Mahal) and the Iranian lady, Arjmand Banu Mumtaz Mahal (buried in the Taj Mahal), Aurangzeb was a scholar who spoke and wrote Arabic, Persian, and Chaghtai Turkic. He made the fatal mistake of overthrowing the Shi’ite Muslim sultanates of Bijapour and Golkandeh-Haiderabad in the Deccan, because of his rivalry with the Safavid emperors of Iran, whose names were recited in the Friday Prayer sermons in south India. The resulting vacuum led to the rise of the Maratha Hindus, who were to ravage and pillage the tottering Mughal Empire for the next century.
Jahan-Ara Begum, the highly influential daughter of Shah Jahan
On April 2, 1614 AD, Jahan-Ara Begum, the highly influential daughter of Shah Jahan, the 5th Grand Mughal Emperor of most of the Subcontinent and eastern Afghanistan, was born. Her mother, Arjmand Ara Bano Mumtaz Mahal, was the beloved Iranian wife of her father, for whom he built the famous white marble mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, which is one of the wonders of the world. Jahan-Ara, besides being a powerful stateswoman who was often consulted by her father, was highly educated and well versed in Persian and Arabic. A poet of repute, she also wrote at least two highly acclaimed books in Persian prose, titled “Mo’nis al-Arwaḥ”, and “Risala-e Sahebiyah”. The first book is a biography of Khwaja Seyyed Moin od-Din Cheshti, the prominent Iranian Sufi and founder of the Cheshtiyah order of the Subcontinent, who wrote the Persian quatrain on the great sacrifice of the Martyr of Karbala, Imam Husain (AS). She was very kind and helped poor people, in addition to building mosques and gardens. She died on September 16, 1681 in the reign of her brother, Aurangzeb, whom she used to call the “White Serpent” for his dethroning of their father, Shah Jahan, and the killing of brothers in the war of succession.
The Battle of Tukaroi
On March 3, 1575 AD, the Battle of Tukaroi was fought in Bengal between the army of the Mughal Emperor, Jalal od-Din Akbar and the Sultan of Bengal-Bihar-Orissa, Daud Khan. After a seesaw struggle, the Mughals became victorious and Daud Khan was forced to sign a treaty ceding what are now the Indian states of Bihar and Bengal as well as all of Bangladesh to Akbar, and himself retaining only the state of Orissa in eastern India.
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