Prayer (Salat),
According to Five Islamic Schools of Law
(Part I)
By: 'Allamah Muhammad Jawad Maghniyyah
Translated from the Arabic by Mujahid Husayn
Salat (prayer) is either obligatory (wajib) or supererogatory (mandub).
The most important of prayers are the obligatory prayers performed daily
five times, and there is consensus among Muslims that a person who denies
or doubts their wujub is not a Muslim, even if he recites the shahadah,
for these prayers are among the 'pillars' (arkan) of Islam. They are the
established necessity of the faith (al-Din) that doesn't need any
ijtihad or study, taqlid.
The Daily Supererogatory Prayers (Rawatib):
Supererogatory prayers are of various kinds, and among them are those
which are performed along with the obligatory daily prayers (fara'id). The
schools differ regarding the number of their rak'ahs. The Shafi'is consider
them to be eleven rak'ahs: two before the morning (subh) prayer, two before
the noon (zuhr) prayer and two after it, two after the sunset (maghrib)
prayer,
two after the night ('isha') prayer and a single rak'ah called 'al-watirah'
The Hanbalis consider them to be ten rak'ahs; two rak'ahs before and
after the noon prayer, two after the sunset and The night prayer, and two
rak'ahs before The morning prayer.
According to the Malikis there is no fixed number for the
supererogatory (nawafil) prayers performed with the obligatory salat,
Though it is best to offer four rak'ahs before the zuhr and six after the
maghrib prayer.
The Hanafis classify the nawafil performed along with the fara'id
into 'masnunah' and 'mandubah'.(1) The 'masnunah' are five: two rak'ahs
before the subh; four before the zuhr, and two after it, except on Friday;
two after the maghrib and two after the 'isha' prayer.
The 'mandubah' are four: four -or two- rak'ahs before the 'asr, six
after the maghrib, and four before and after the 'isha' prayer.
The Imamis observe: The rawatib are 34 rak'ahs: eight before the
zuhr, eight before the 'asr, four after the maghrib, two after the 'isha'
(recited while sitting and counted as a single rak'ah; it is called 'al
watirah'), eight rak'ahs of the midnight prayer (salat al-layl), two
rak'ahs of al-shaf', a single of al-watr,(2) and two rak'ahs before the
morning prayer, called 'salat al-fajr'.
The time of Zuhr and 'Asr Prayers:
The fuqaha' begin with salat al-zuhr, because it was the first salat
to be declared obligatory, followed by the 'asr, the maghrib, the 'isha'
and the subh prayer, in that order. All the five prayers were made
obligatory on the night of Prophet's cosmic journey (al 'Isra'),
nine years after the beginning of his mission (bi'thah). Those who hold
this opinion cite as proof verse 78 of the Surat al-'Isra' which
stipulates all the five prayers:
" Perform salat from the declining of the sun to the darkening of the
night and the recital of the dawn; surely the recital of the dawn is
witnessed." (17:78)
The schools concur that salat is not valid if performed before its
appointed time and that the time of the zuhr prayer sets in when the sun
passes the meridian. They differ concerning its duration.
The Imamis say: The specific period of the zuhr prayer extends from
the moment the sun crosses the meridian up to a period required to perform
it, and the specific period of the 'asr prayer is the duration required to
perform it just before sunset. The time between these two specific periods
is the common period for the two salats. This is the reason they consider
it valid to perform both the prayers successively during their common
period.(3) But if the time remaining for the end of the day is sufficient
only for performing the zuhr prayer, the 'asr prayer will be offered first
with the niyyah of ada' and later the zuhr prayer will be performed as
qada'.
The four Sunni schools observe: The time of the zuhr prayer begins
when the sun crosses the meridian and continues till the shadow of an
object becomes as long as its height; and when the length of the shadow
exceeds the height of the object, the time for the zuhr prayer comes to an
end. Here the Shafi'is and the Malikis add: These limits are for an
unconstrained person (mukhtar), and for one who is constrained (mudarr),
the time for zuhr prayer extends even after an object's shadow equals its
height. The Imamis consider the time when an object's shadow equals its
height as the end of the time of fadilah (honor) for the zuhr, and when it
equals twice the height of the object as the time of fadilah for the 'asr
prayer.
The Hanafis and the Shafi'is state: The time of 'asr prayer begins
when the length of an object's shadow exceeds its height and continues up
to sunset.
The Malikis say: For the 'asr prayer there are two times, the first
for ordinary circumstances and the second for exigencies. The former
begins with an object's shadow exceeding its height and lasts until the
sun turns pale. The latter begins from when the sun turns pale and
continues until sunset.
The Hanbalis observe: One who delays offering the 'asr prayer till
after an object's shadow exceeds twice its height, his salat will be
considered ada' if performed before sunset, though he will have sinned
because it is haram to delay it until this time. They are alone in all the
schools in holding this opinion.
The Time of Maghrib and 'Isha' Prayers:
The Shafi'i and the Hanbali schools (in accordance with the view of
their respective Imams) state: The time for the maghrib prayer begins when
the sun sets and ends when there radish after glow on the western horizon
vanishes.
The Malikis say: The duration for the maghrib prayer is narrow
and confined to the time required after sunset to perform the maghrib
prayer along with its preliminaries of taharah and adhan, and it is not
permissible to delay it voluntarily. But in an emergency, the time for the
maghrib prayer extends until dawn. The Malikis are alone in considering it
impermissible to delay the maghrib prayer beyond its initial time.
The Imamis observe: The period specific to the maghrib prayer extends
from sunset(4) for a duration required to perform it, and the specific
period of the 'isha' prayer is the duration required to finish it before
midnight. The time between these two specific periods is the common time
for both maghrib and 'isha' prayers. Hence they allow the joint
performance of these two salats during this common time.
That was with respect to someone who is in a position to act out of
free choice (mukhtar), but as to a person constrained by sleep or
forgetfulness, the time for these two salats extend until dawn, with the
period specific for the 'isha' prayer becoming the time required to
perform it just before dawn and the specific period for the maghrib prayer
becoming the time required to perform it just after midnight.
The Time of subh Prayer:
There is consensus among The schools, with the exception of the
Maliki, that the time for the morning prayer begins at day-break (al fajr
al-sadiq) and lasts until sunrise. The Malikis say: The subh prayer has
two times: for one in a position to act out of free choice it begins with
daybreak and lasts until there is enough twilight for faces to be
recognized; for one in constrained circumstances it begins from the time
when faces are recognizable and continues up to sunrise.
NOTE: THE NUMBERS FOLLOWING SOME TERMS ARE MARKS FOR FOOTNOTES THAT WILL
BE APPENDED IN SHAA ALLAH IN THE NEXT PART.

Prayer (Salat),According to Five Islamic Schools of Law
(Part II)
By: 'Allamah Muhammad Jawad Maghniyyah
Ignorance of the Qiblah (direction):
It is wajib for a person ignorant of the qiblah to inquire and
strive to determine its exact or approximate direction, and in case
neither of the two is possible, the four Sunni schools and a group from
among the Imamis say: He may perform salat in any direction; his salat
will be valid and it will not be wajib for him to repeat it except in the
opinion of the Shafi'is. Most Imamis observe: He will perform Salat in
four directions to comply with the command for salat and to ascertain its
proper performance. But if there isn't sufficient time for performing
salat four times or if one is incapable of performing it in four
directions, he may perform, salat in the directions that he can.
A Subsidiary Issue:
If a person prays not facing the qiblah and comes to know about
his mistake, the Imamis state: If the error is known during the salat and
the correct qiblah lies between his two hands, the part of the salat
already performed will be valid and he will have to correct his direction
for the remaining part of the salat. But if it is known that he has been
praying facing the right or the left (90 degree off the direction) or his
back towards the qiblah (180 degree off the direction), the salat will be
invalid and he will perform it anew. If the error is known after
performing the salat, it should be performed again if its time
is still there, not otherwise. Some Imamis say: The salat will not be
repeated if there is only a little deviation from the qiblah, irrespective
of whether its time is still there or not. But if it has been performed
facing the right or the left (90 degree off), it should be repeated if its
time is there, not otherwise. If the salat is performed with one's back to
the qiblah (180 degree off), it should be repeated regardless of whether
its time is still there or has passed
The Hanafis and the Hanbalis observe: If after inquiring and
striving to find the qiblah one is unable to ascertain its approximate
direction and performs salat in a direction which turns out to be wrong,
he must change his direction accordingly if the mistake is known during
the salat, and if it is known afterwards his salat is valid and he has no
further obligation.
The Shafi'is say: If it becomes certain that there has been a
mistake in determining the qiblah, it is wajib to repeat the salat, but if
there is only a likelihood of mistake, the salat is valid Irrespective of
whether the probability arises during the salat or after it.
As to one who neither makes an inquiry nor an effort to determine
the qiblah, but by chance performs the salat in the right direction, the
Malikis and Hanbalis consider his salat to be invalid. The opinion of the
Imamis and the Hanafis is that his salat is valid provided he has no
doubts while praying and was sure about the direction of the qiblah at the
time of starting the salat, because, as pointed out by the Imamis, in such
a situation it is correct for him to make the niyyah of acquiring nearness
(qurbah) to God.
The Numbers that follow some of the words
refer to notes that will appended in the coming issues in shaa Allah.

Prayer (Salat),According to Five Islamic Schools of Law
(Part III)
By: 'Allamah Muhammad Jawad Maghniyyah
Wajib Covering During Salat:
The schools concur that it is wajib (necessary) upon both men and
women
to cover those parts of their bodies during salat which should ordinarily
be kept covered before 'strangers'. Beyond that their positions differ. Is it
wajib for a woman to cover, fully or partly, her face and hands during
salat, although she is not required to do so outside salat? Is it wajib for
a man to cover other parts of his body during salat apart from the area
between the navel and the knees, though it is not wajib to do so outside
salat?
The Hanafis observe: It is wajib upon a woman to cover the back
of her hands and the soles of her feet as well, and upon a man to cover
his knees in addition to the area between the navel and the knees.
The Shafi'is and Malikis say: It is permissible for a woman to keep
her face and both the palms and the back of her hands uncovered
during salat.
The Hanbalis state: It is not permissible for her to expose any
part except the face.
The Imamis observe: It is wajib for both men and women to cover only
those parts of their body during salat which they are supposed to cover
ordinarily in the presence of a 'stranger'. Hence it is permissible for a
woman to expose during salat that part of her face which is washed
during wudu'; her hands up to the wrists, and her feet up to the ankles
both the back as well as the palms of hands and the soles of feet. For
a man, it is wajib to cover the rear and the private parts, though better
to cover the entire area between the navel and the knees.
The Material Used for Covering During Salat:
The covering should meet the following requirements where the
ability and freedom to meet them exist:
1. Taharah: The purity of The covering and the body are necessary for
the validity of salat in the opinion of all the schools, although each of
them concedes certain exceptions in accordance with the following
details:
The Imamis state: Blood from wounds and sores, irrespective of
its quantity, is considered excusable on The dress as well as the body if
its removal entails difficulty and harm (mashaqqah and haraj). A blood spot
smaller than the size of a dirham coin, regardless of its being due to
one's blood or that of someone else, is also excusable provided that: it is
in a single place and not in different places; it is not the blood of hayd,
nifas and istihadah; it is not the blood of anything intrinsically najis,
such as dog and pig, or the blood of a dead body. Also excusable is the
impurity of anything that does not constitute part of essential dress
during salat, e.g. a sash, cap, socks, shoes, ring, anklet and that which
one carries with oneself, e.g. knife or currency. The impurity of the dress
of a woman rearing a child, irrespective of whether she is the mother or
someone else, is exempted on condition that it be difficult for her to
change it and that she washes it once every day. In other words, in their
opinion every najasah on dress or body is exempted in conditions of
emergency (idtirar).
The Malikis observe: Cases of uncontrolled discharge of urine or
excrement, as well as piles, are excusable; so is any impurity on the
body or clothes of a woman suckling an infant that may be soiled by
the infant's urine or feces. So also are exempted the body and clothes
of a butcher, surgeon and scavenger. Also exempted is: blood -even
that of a pig- if it is less than the size of a dirham coin: the discharge
from boils, the excrement of fleas, and other things which need not be
mentioned because they occur rarely.
The Hanafis say: Najasah, blood or anything else, if less than the
size of a dirham coin is exempted. Also exempted in emergencies is the
urine and excrement of a cat and mouse. Tiny splashes- as small as the
point of a needle- of urine, the blood that unavoidably stains a butcher,
and the mud on roads- even if it is usually mixed with najasah and
provided the najasah itself is not visible- are exempted. Consequently,
they consider najasah in a small quantity as exempted, such as the urine
of an animal eating which is halal, if it covers a fourth of the clothes
and less than one-fourth of the body.
According to the Shafi'is, every najasah which is in such a small
quantity that the eye cannot see it is exempted. So is the mud on roads
which is mixed with a small quantity of najasah, worms present in
fruits and cheese, najis liquids added in medicines and perfumes,
excrements of birds, najis hair in small quantity if they do not belong
to a dog or a pig, and other things as well which are mentioned in
detailed works.
The Hanbalis say: Minute quantities of blood and pus are ex-
empted, and so is the mud on roads whose najasah is certain, as well as
the najasah that enters the eyes and washing which is harmful.
2. Wearing Silk: There is consensus among the schools that wearing silk
and gold is haram for men both during and outside salat, while it is
permissible for women. This is in accordance with this statement of the
Prophet (S):
Wearing silk and gold is unlawful for the men of my ummah, while it is
lawful for its women.
Accordingly, the Imamis observe: A man's salat is not valid if he wears
pure silk and any clothing embroidered with gold during it, regardless
of whether it is a waistband, cap, socks, or even a gold ring. They allow
wearing silk during salat in times of illness and during war.
The Shafi'is state: If a man performs salat while wearing silk or over
something made of it, it will be considered a haram act, though his salat
will be valid (al-Nawawi, Sharh al-Muhadhdhab, iii, 179). I have not found
an express statement in the books of the remain- ing schools concerning the
validity or invalidity of salat performed in silk, though the Hanafis as
well as the Hanbalis (in accordance with one of two narrations) concur with
the Shafi'is regarding the general rule that if there is any command
prohibiting something which is not directly connected with salat such as
the command prohibiting usurpa- tion- the salat will be valid if it is not
observed and The person will be considered as having performed a wajib and
a haram act together. Accordingly the salat performed in a dress of silk is
valid. The author of al-fiqh 'ala al-madhahib al-'arba'ah reports a
consensus for the Sunni schools that that it is valid for a man constrained
to perform salat while wearing silk, and it is not wajib for him to repeat
it.
3. Lawfulness of the Clothing: The Imamis consider it necessary that
the clothing worn to be lawfully owned. Hence if a person performs salat
in usurped clothes with the knowledge of their being so, his salat is
invalid. This is also the opinion of Ibn Hanbal in one of the two state-
ments narrated from him.
The other schools regard salat in usurped clothes as valid on the
grounds that the prohibition does not directly relate to salat so as to
invalidate it.
The Imamiyyah are very strict concerning usurpation, and some
of them even observe: If a person performs salat in clothes in
which a single thread is usurped, or carries with him an usurped knife,
dirham, or any other thing, his salat will not be valid. But they also
say: If one performs salat in usurped clothes out of ignorance or
forgetfulness, his salat is valid.
4. The Skin of Uneatable Animals: The Imamis are alone in holding that
it is invalid to perform salat while wearing the skin (even if tanned)
of an animal whose flesh is not allowed to be eaten, as well as anything
consisting its hair, wool, fur or feathers. The same is true of clothes
bearing any secretion from its body- eg. sweat and saliva- as long as
it is wet. Hence, even if a single hair of a cat or any such animal happens
to be present on the dress of a person performing salat and if he performs
it with the knowledge of its presence, his salat is invalid.
They exclude wax, honey, the blood of bugs; lice, fleas and other
insects which have no flesh, as well as the hair, sweat and saliva of
human beings.
They also consider salat invalid if any part of a dead animal
(maytah) happens to be on the clothes irrespective of whether the
animal is one used for food or not, whether its blood flows when cut
or not, and its skin is tanned or not.
A Subsidiary Issue: If there is only a single clothing to cover the body
and that too is najis to an extent that is not excusable, what should
one do if he has no alternative other than either performing salat in the
najis clothing or in the state of nature?
The Hanbalis say: He should perform salat in the najis clothing,
but it is wajib upon him to repeat it later.
The Malikis and a large number of Imamis observe: He should
perform salat in the najis clothing and its repetition is not wajib upon
him.
The Hanafis and the Shafi'is state: He should perform salat naked
and it is not valid for him to cover himself with the najis clothing.
The Place of Salat:
An Usurped Place: The Imamis consider salat performed in an usurped
place and usurped clothing as invalid provided it is done voluntarily and
with the knowledge of the usurpation. The other schools observe: The
salat performed in an usurped place is valid, though the person per-
forming it will have sinned, since the prohibition does not relate directly
to salat; rather, it relates to dispensations (of property). Their position
in this regard is the same as in the case of usurped clothing. Furthermore
in the opinion of the four schools the Salat of usurper himself is valid
in usurped property.
The Imamis also consider as valid the salat of the true owner and
anyone whom he permits, and regard as invalid the salat of the usurper
and anyone whom the owner has not granted permission. The Imamis however
permit salat in vast stretches of (owned) land which are either impossible
or difficult for people to avoid, even if the permission of the owner has
not been acquired.
Taharah (purity) of the Place: The four Sunni schools observe: The place
should be free from both wet and dry najasah (impurity). The Shafi'is
overdo by saing: The taharah of all that which touches and comes into
contact with the body or clothes of the performer is wajib. Therefore, if
he rubs himself against a najis wall or cloth or holds a najis object or a
rope laying over najasah, his salat will be invalid. The Hanafis require
only the location of the feet and the forehead to be tahir. The Imamis
restrict it to the loca- tion of the forehead, i.e. the place of sajdah. As
to the najasah of other locations, the salat will not be invalid unless the
najasah is transmitted to the body or clothing of the performer (the person
performing salat).
Salat Performed on a Mount: The Hanafis and the Imamis require the
place to be stationary; hence it is not valid in their opinion to perform
salat while riding an animal or something that swings back and forth,
except out of necessity, because one who has no choice will perform
salat in accordance with his capacity.
The Shafi'is, Malikis and Hanbalis observe: Salat performed on a
mount is valid even during times of peace and despite the ability to
perform it on the ground, provided it is performed completely and
meets all the requirements.
Salat Inside the Ka'bah: The Imamis, Shafi'is and Hanafis state: It is
valid to perform salat, faridah or nafilah, inside the Ka'bah.
The Malikis and the Hanbalis say: Only nafilah, not faridah, is
valid therein.
A Woman's Prayer Beside a Man: A group of Imami legists observe: If
a man and a woman perform salat in a single place so that she is either
in front of him or beside him, and there is neither any screen between
them nor does the distance between the two exceed 10 cubits, the
salat of the one who starts earlier will not be invalid, and if both star
simultaneously, the salat of both will be invalid.
The Hanafis say: If the woman is in front or beside a man, the
salat will be invalid if performed in a single place with no screen at
least
a cubit high between them, the woman has sex appeal, her shanks and
ankles are adjacent to his, the salat is not a funeral prayer, and the
salat is being jointly performed, i.e. either she is following him or both
are following a single imam.
The Shafi'is, the Hanbalis and most Imamis are of the view that
the salat is valid, though the manner of performance is makruh.
The Locale of Sajdah: The schools concur that the place where the
forehead is placed during prostration should be stationary and should
not be inordinately higher than the location of the knees (during
sajdah). They differ regarding that on which sajdah is valid.
The Imamis state: It is valid to perform sajdah only on earth and those
things which grow on it which are not used for food or clothing.
Therefore, a person cannot perform sajdah on wool, cotton, minerals
and that which grows on the surface of water, for water is not earth.
They permit sajdah on paper because it is made of a material
which grows on earth. They argue their position by pointing out that
sajdah is an 'ibadah (obedience) prescribed by the Shari'ah that depends
for
its particulars on textual evidence (nass). The legists of all the schools
concur regarding the validity of sajdah on earth and that which grows
on it, thus Imamis restrict it to that because there is certainty. They
offer as further evidence these traditions of the Prophet (S):
The salat of any of you will not be valid unless he performs wudu' as in-
structed by God and then performs sajdah by placing his forehead on the
earth.
The earth has been created a masjid (a place for performing sajdah) and
a purifier .
Khabbab says: "We complained to The Prophet (S) regarding the
excessive heat of sun-baked ground on our foreheads, but he did not
accept our complaint."
Had it been valid to perform sajdah on carpets, why would they have
complained?! However Imamis permit sajdah on cotton and linen in the case
of emergency.
The four schools observe: It is valid to perform sajdah on anything,
including even a part of one's turban, provided it is tahir. Rather,
the Hanafis permit sajdah on one's palm even without an emergency,
though it is considered as makruh.
To be continued-insha'Allah
FOOTNOTES:
1. The Hanafis use two terms ('fard' and 'wajib') for something whose
performance is obligatory and whose omission is impermissible. Hence
they divide obligation into two kinds: fard and wajib. 'Fard 'is a duty
for which there is definite proof, such as Qur'anic text, mutawatir
sunnah, and ijma' (consensus). 'Wajib' is a duty for which there is a
Dhanni (non-definite) proof, such as qiyas (analogy) and khabar
al-wahid (isolated tradition). That whose performance is preferable to its
omission is also of two kinds: 'masnun' and 'mandub'. 'Masnun' is an act
which the Prophet (S) and the 'Rashidun' caliphs performed regularly, and
'mandub' is an act ordered by the Prophet (S) though not performed
regularly by him (S). That which it is wajib to avoid and whose
performance is not permissible is 'muharram' if it is established by a
definite proof. If based on a Dhanni proof, it is 'makruh', whose
performance is forbidden.
2. According to the Hanafis, the salat al-watr consists of three rak'ahs
with a single salam. Its time extends from the disappearance of twilight
after sunset to dawn. The Hanbalis and Shafi'is say: At minimum it is one
rak'ah and at maximum eleven rak'ahs, and its time is after the 'isha'
prayer. The Malikis observe: It has only one rak'ah.
3. There are among 'ulama' of the Sunni schools those who agree with
the Imamis on performing the two salats together even when one is not
travelling. al-Shaykh Ahmad al-Siddiq al-Ghumari has written a book on
this topic, Izalat al khatar 'amman jama'a bayn al-salatayn fi al-hadar.
4. There is no difference regarding the definition of sunset between the
Imamis and the other four schools. But the Imamis say that the setting of
the sun is not ascertained simply by the vanishing of the sun from sight,
but on the vanishing of the reddish afterglow from the eastern horizon,
for the east overlooks the west and the eastern afterglow, which is a
reflection of sun's light, pales away as the sun recedes. That which is
rumored regarding Shi'is that they do not break their fast during Ramadan
until the stars become visible, has no basis. In fact they denounce this
opinion in their books on fiqh with the argument that the stars may be
visible before sunset, at the time of sunset or after it, and declare that
"one who delays the maghrib prayer till the stars appear is an accursed
man (mal'un ibn mal'un)." They have said this in condemnation of the
Khattabiyyah (an extrimist sect which deviated from Shia), the followers
of Abu al-Khattab, who held this belief. Thanks to God that they are now
one of the extinct sects. lmam al-Sadiq (AS) was told that the people
of Iraq delay the maghrib prayer until the stars become visible.
He answered, "That is on account of Abu al-Khattab, enemy of Allah."
5 The command to face Masjid al-Haram has come in verse 144 of Surat
al-Baqarah (...So turn your face towards Masjid al-Haram ), and the
leave to turn in any direction in verse 115 : (To God belong the East and
the West; where ever you turn there is the Face of God). Some scholars
have held that the former verse abrogates the latter. Others disagree and
point out that there is no abrogation involved here, nor is it a case of
one being particular and the other general. The way to reconcile the two
verses, they point out, is that the former verse applies to those who know
the direction of the qiblah and commands them to turn towards it. The
latter verse specifically applies to one who is at a loss regarding its
direction and orders him to perform salat in any direction he wants. This
opinion seems to be more credible.
6. Verse 31 of Surat al-Nur mentions those before whom women can expose
their adornment, and among them are Muslim women. Thus the verse prohibits
a Muslim woman from exposing herself before a non-Muslim woman. The
Shafi'is Malikis and Hanafis construe this prohibition as implying tahrim.
Most Imamis and the Hanbalis say: There is no difference between Muslim
and non-Muslim women. But according to the Imamis it is makruh for a
Muslim woman to expose herself before a non-Muslim woman, because she may
describe what she observes from that muslim woman to non-muslim man.
7. al-Jawahir, at the beginning of bab al-zawaj.
Prostrating on Mud
For the Shia it is only acceptable to perform "Sujood" on a material
that is not worn (used to make cloths) or eaten (i.e. foods for people)
The best thing to make sujood on is earth (soil/clay) the second being
Hasir (bamboo-nitted mat/rug). That's what the prophet used to do based
on even Sunni refernces such as Sahih Bukhari, volume 1, section on prayer
on the "Khumrah" (a formed clay, referred to as "turbah" today):
Sahih al-Bukhari Hadith: 1.376
Narrates 'Abdullah bin Shaddad:
Maimuna said, "Allah's Apostle was praying while I was in my menses,
sitting beside him and sometimes his clothes would touch me during his
prostration." Maimuna added, "He prayed on a Khumra (a small mat
sufficient just for the forehead while prostrating during prayers).
Sahih al-Bukhari Hadith: 1.378
Narrated Maimuna:
Allah's Apostle used to pray on Khumra.
Sahih al-Bukhari Hadith: 1.331
Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah:
The Prophet said: "... The earth has been made for me (and for my
followers) the place for prostrating and a mean to perform Tayammum,
therefore anyone of my followers can pray wherever the time of a
prayer is due."
Sahih al-Bukhari Hadith: 1.373
Narrated Abu Juhaifa:
I saw Allah's Apostle in a red leather tent and I saw Bilal taking the
remaining water with which the Prophet had performed ablution. I saw
the people taking the utilized water impatiently and whoever got some
of it rubbed it on his body and those who could not get any took the
moisture from the others' hands. Then I saw Bilal carrying an 'Anza (a
spear-headed stick) which he planted in the ground. The Prophet came
out tucking up his red cloak, and led the people in prayer and offered
two Rakat (facing the Ka'ba) taking 'Anza as a Sutra for his prayer. I
saw the people and animals passing in front of him beyond the 'Anza.
Sahih al-Bukhari Hadith: 7.752
Narrated 'Aisha:
The Prophet used to construct a loom with a Hasir (a wooden carpet) at
night in order to pray therein, and during the day he used to spread
it out and sit on it.
It is noteworthy that both Hasir (wooden carpet) and Khumra (formed
clay) are natural made of earth, and are not eatable nor used for clothing.
Thus they can be used for the place of Sajdah. Regural rugs (woollen or
synthetic materials) are not natural made of earth.
Regards,

Prayer (Salat),According to Five Islamic Schools of Law
(Part IV)
By: 'Allamah Muhammad Jawad Maghniyyah
The Essentials (arkan) of Salat:
The validity of the Salat is dependent upon purity (Tahara from
both hadath and khabath), the time of performing it, facing the Qibla, and
wearing sufficient clothing. The fulfilment of these conditions (Shurut)
before starting the salat is necessary, and they have been discussed in
details in the preceding sections. Salat also comprises certain
essentials (arkan wa fara'id) which are performed as parts of salat.
They are many, and among them are the following:
1. Intention (Niyyah):
The Schools -- or rather the legists of each school among
themselves -- differ regarding the content of the niyyah (intention)
required for salat, that is, whether it is necessary to specify the salat
(such as its being zuhr or asr prayer), whether it is obligatory or
supererogatory, complete (tamam) or shortened (qasr), in time (ada') or
late (Qada'), and so on. . .
the essence of the niyyah, as mentioned in the chapter on
ablution is the intention to perform an act with the motive of obedience
to a command of Almighty God. Specification of a particular salat,
whether it is obligatory or supererogatory, ada' or qada', is dependent
upon the intention of the musalli. Thus if he intends to perform a
supererogatory salat at the beginning and performs it with this intention,
it will be supererogatory; if he intends to perform an obligatory salat,
such as zuhr or asr prayers, it will be so. But if he does not intend
anything it will be a waste of labour, though it is possible for one not
to intend anything. Because any act performed by a sane person can not
be without an intention regardless of whether he expresses it in specific
words or not, and irrespective of whether he is attentive to his
intention or not. Therefore, all the schools concur that expressing the
niyyah in words is not necessary. Similarly, it is also ordinarily
impossible for one who knows the difference involved to intend zuhr while
performing asr and an obligatory salat while performing a supererogatory
one.
However discusions regarding niyyah and its various forms were
not in vague among the pioneering scholars of the shari'ah. It would be
good to quote here the observations of two great sscholars, Ibn
al-Qayyim from among the Sunni legists, and sayyid Mohammad, the author
of al-Madarik, from the Imamiyyah.
The former observes in his "Zad al-Ma'ad" as quoted in the first
volume of ibn Qudamah's "al-Mughni": "The prophet (S) used to say
'Allahu Akbar' when he stood for prayer and did not say anything before
it. He did not expresss the niyyah in words, such as saying: 'I perform
such and such prayer in four rak'ahs facing the qibla as an imam or
ma'mum. Neither did he mention whether it was ada' or qada' nor its
time. These ten are later elaborations and no one has ever narrated them
from him (S) in either sahih or da'if form. And neither the tabi'un nor
the four imams have opted for them."
The latter, in Madarik al-Ahkam observes: "That which is
inferable from the sources of the shari'ah is that niyyah is a simple
matter and all that it involves is the intention to perform an act in
obedience to God, the Exalted. This is something which no sane person can
do without while turning to perform an act of worship (Ibadah)."
2. Takbirat al-'Ihram:
Salat does not materialize without 'takbirat al-'ihram.' Its name
derives from the statement of the Prophet (S):
Purity (taharah) is the key to salat; its start (tahrim) is the
takbirah (i.e., saying only one time Allahu Akbar); and its
termination (tahlil) is taslim (i.e., saying Assalamu Alaykum).
It means that with takbirat al-'ihram it becomes haram to speak
and perform any act incompatible with salat, and by reciting taslim
those acts which were prohibited after reciting the takbir become
permissible again.
Its formula is 'Allahu akbar", and according to the Imamis, Malikis
and Hanbalis no other form is permissible. The Shafi'is observe: Both
"Allahu akbar", and "Allahu al-'akbar" (with the addition of alif and
lam to "akbar") are permissible. The Hanafis state: Any other synony-
mous words such as 'Allahu al-'a'zam' and 'Allahu al-'ajall' will do it.
All the schools, excepting the Hanafi, concur that it is wajib to recite
it in Arabic, even if the performer is a non-Arab. If he cannot, it is
obligatory for him to learn it; and if he cannot learn, he may translate
it into his own tongue. The Hanafis observe: it is valid to recite it in
any language even if one can recite it in Arabic.
There is consensus among the schools that at the time of reciting
takbirat al-'ihram all the conditions necessary for salat (such as purity,
facing the qiblah, covering the body etc.) should be present, and that
it should be recited-- when one has the ability to do so--while standing
stationarily, and in a voice that he can hear. The word Allah' should
precede 'akbar', and the reverse, 'akbar Allah', will not suffice for entry
into qiyam.
3. Qiyam (standing):
The schools concur that qiyam is wajib in the obligatory salats
from the beginning of takbirat al-'ihram until going to ruku', and that
standing uprightly, stationarily and independently are its requisites.
Hence it is not valid to recline on any support when one is able to
stand without it. If one cannot stand, he may perform salat sitting, and
if this too is not possible, while laying down on the right side facing the
qiblah (in the same position that a dead body is placed in the grave).
This is the opinion of all the schools except the Hanafis, who state: A
person who cannot sit will perform salat laying down on his back with
his feet pointing towards the qiblah, so that his gestures in lieu of
ruku' and sajdah are made towards the qiblah.
If it is not possible to perform salat while laying on the right side,
the Imamis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis permit him to perform salat laying on
his back by making gestures with his head. If gesturing with the head
is not possible, he will gesture with the eyelids.
The Hanafis say: If his state is as bad as that, the duty of salat will
no longer apply to him, though he will have to perform it qada' when
his condition improves and the hindrance is removed.
According to the Malikis, a sick person such as this, is not required
to perform salat and it is also not wajib for him to perform its qada'
The Imamis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis state: The duty of salat does
not disappear in any situation; if he is unable to gesture by blinking his
eyes he will pass the salat through his mind and move his tongue for
reciting the qira'ah and dhikr. If he is unable to move the tongue he will
imagine it in his mind as long as his mind works. To sum up, salat is
wajib upon those who are fully capable and those who are not so
capable. It may not be neglected in any situation, and every person
must perform it in accordance with his ability. Hence it is performed
while standing, then sitting, then laying down on one's side, then laying
down on one's back, then gesturing by blinking the eyes, and passing it
through the mind, in that order. A fully capable person as well as one
not capable will move from the previous state to the new situation
which has come into existence. Hence if a fully capable person loses his
ability during salat or one not capable regains it, either of them will
perform the remaining part in accordance with his ability. Therefore,
if he performs one rak'ah (unit) standing and is then unable to stand, he
will complete it sitting, and if he performs the first rak'ah sitting and
then
regains the strength to stand, he will complete the remaining salat
standing.
4. Qira'ah (reciting):
The schools differ whether the recitation of Surat al-Fatihah is
wajib in every rak'ah (unit), or in the first two rak'ahs, or in all the
rak'ahs without there being any other alternative. They give different
answers to the following questions: Is the bismillah an essential part of
al-Fatihah or is it valid to omit it? Is it wajib or mustahabb to recite
aloud or in a low voice? Is it wajib to recite another surah after
al-Fatihah in the first two rak'ahs? Can the tasbih replace the surah?
Is takattuf (the folding of arms during salat) a sunnah or is it haram?
And so on.
['tasbih' means: saying "subhanallah wal-hamdu lillah wala ilaha illallah
wallahu akbar" which is usually recited three times in the third and the
forth rak'ahs (units).
Also 'qunut' means rasing both hands toward the sky and holding them in
front of the chest or face and then reciting a supplication, like asking
for forgiveness. It could be some verses of Quran or not. However it should
be in Arabic for obligatory prayers.]
The Hanafis observe: It is not compulsory to recite only Surat
al-Fa-tihah in the daily obligatory salats, and anything recited from the
Qur'an may take its place, because God the Exalted, says: 'Therefore
recite of the Qur'an so much as is feasible' (73:20) (Bidayat al-mujahid,
v1, p 122 and al-Shi'rani's , "bab sifat al-salat").
The recital from the Qur'an is wajib in the first two rak'ahs; but in the
third rak'ah of the maghrib prayer and the last two rak'ahs of 'asr and
'isha' prayer there is an option between reciting from the Qur'an or
saying the tasbih or keeping quiet (al-Nawawi, Sharh al-Muhadhdhab,
v3, p361).
Moreover, the Hanafis say: It is valid to skip the bismillah
because it is not a part of any surah. Neither reciting aloud nor in a low
voice are mustahabb, and a performer praying alone is free to recite in a
voice that he alone can hear or in a voice hearable to others. There is
no qunut in salat with the exception of salat al-watr. As to takattuf,
it is masnun (a sunnah) but it is not wajib, and its preferable form is
for a man to place the palm of his right hand on the back of his left hand,
and for a woman to place her hands on her chest.
The Shafi'is state: Surat al-Fatihah is wajib in every rak'ah,
without there being any difference in this regard between the first two
rak'ahs and the other rak'ahs and between wajib and mustahabb salats.
The bismillah is a part of the surah and cannot be omitted in any
circumstance. The recitation should be aloud in the morning prayer
and the first two rak'ahs of maghrib and 'isha' prayers; the remaining
recitals are to be in a low voice. The qunut is mustahabb only in the
morning prayer, and is to be performed after rising from the ruku' of
the second rak'ah. Similarly, it is mustahabb to recite another surah
after al-Fatihah only in the first two rak'ahs. Takattuf is not wajib
but a sunnah for both the sexes, and its preferable form is to place
the right hand palm on the back of the left hand between the chest
and the navel and towards the left side.
According to the Malikis, reciting Surat al-Fatihah is necessary in
every rak'ah, without there being any difference in this regard between
the earlier and later rak'ahs and between fard and mustahabb salats, as
observed earlier by the Shafi'is. It is mustahabb to recite another surah
after al-Fatihah in the first two rak'ahs. The bismillah is not a part of
the surah and it is mustahabb to omit it altogether. Reciting aloud is
mustahabb in the morning prayer and the first two rak'ahs of maghrib
and 'isha' prayers. Qunut is to be recited only in the morning prayer.
Takattuf is valid in their opinion, though it is mustahabb to keep the
hands hanging freely in the fard prayers.
The Hanbalis consider al-Fatihah to be wajib in even rak'ah, and
to recite a surah after it in the first two rak'ahs as mustahabb. The
morning prayer and the first two rak'ahs of maghrib and 'isha' prayers
are to be recited aloud. The bismillah is a part of surahs though it will
be recited in a low voice and not aloud. Qunut is to be recited in Salat
al-watr and not in any other salat. Takattuf is a sunnah for both men
and women and its preferable form is to place the right hand palm on
the back of the left hand below the navel.
It is evident that takattuf, which the Sunni legists call it 'qabd' and
the Shia legists call it 'takfir'--i.e. to conceal, is not wajib in the
opinion of any of the four Sunni schools.
The Imamis state: Reciting Surat al-Fatihah is necessary in the
first two rak'ahs of every salat and no other surah can replace it.
But it is not wajib in the third rak'ah of maghrib and the last two
rak'ahs of four-rak'ah prayers; rather, one has an option between it and
tasbih, though even once is sufficient. It is wajib to recite another
complete surah in the first two rak'ahs, and the bismillah is a part of
the surahs which cannot be omitted in any circumstance. It is wajib
to recite aloud only the surahs and not the other recitations in the
morning prayer and the first two rak'ahs of maghrib and 'isha' prayers.
except for the bismillah, the recitation in zuhr and asr prayers is
to be done in a low voice in their first two rak'ahs and also in the
third rak'ah of maghrib and the last two rak'ahs of 'isha' prayers.
Qunut is mustahabb in the five daily prayers and its place is the second
rak'ah after the recital of the surahs and before ruku' . The minimum
level of voice considered 'Hud' is that a person nearby be able to hear
it, and the minimum for 'low' voice is that the person himself be able
to hear it. The schools concur that reciting aloud is not prescribed for
women, nor is reciting in a voice lower than what can be heard by
herself. If a performer voluntarily recites loudly something which is to be
recited in a low voice and vice versa, his/her salat will be invalid, if
this is not done due to ignorance or forgetfulness.
The Imamis also considers saying "Ammin" (Amen) during salat to
be haram and doing so invalidates the salat, irrespective of whether
one is praying individually or in group prayer as an imam or ma'mum,
because it is something adopted by the people, and nothing adopted
by people is capable of being included in the salat.
The four Sunni schools concur that it is mustahabb in accordance
with the narration of Abu Huraira that the Prophet (S) said:
When the imam says, "ghayr il maghdubi 'alaymhim wa la-ddallin,' then
say: "Ammin"
The Imamis negate the authenticity of the above tradition.
Also most Imamis consider takattuf (putting hands over each other) renders
the salat invalid (batil) because there is no explicit text (nass)
in support of it. However, some of them say: Takattuf is haram and the
one who does it has committed sin, though his salat is not invalid. A third
group from among them observe: It is makruh (discouraged) and not haram.
To be continued Ensha Allah...
This is written by a Sunni brother about Qunoot:
Qunoot:
Qunoot is an established practice of the prophet, and is accepted as such
by all 4 Sunni schools. According to Malikis it is performed in the
Fajr prayer before rukoo`. Hanafis have it in the witr prayer beforerukoo`.
Shafi`is have it in the fajr prayer after rukoo`, and in the witr prayer
in the last half of ramadhan. Many sunni scholars have seen it as
recommended to perform qunoot in times of trouble and affliction(nawaazil),
especially in the fajr prayer, and also in the maghrib and eshaa prayer.
According to the shafi`ee school it shoould be done in every prayer under
such circumstances. It was reported that ABu Hurayra used to perfrom
Qunoot even in the Afternoon prayer, and there was no mention ofaffliction.
Ibn Abbas performed it before rukoo` in the fajr prayer. Abdullah ibnMas`ood
performed it before rukoo` in the 3rd rak`ah of witr.
I do not 'belong' to any school of thought as such - I I belong to the
Ummah of Islam. However, as far as practicing particulars, I follow
for the most part the fiqh of Abdullah ibn Mas`ood and the other
jurists who later moved to Kufa, notable among them being Imam Abu
Haneefah
(incidentally a student of Imam Ja`far al-Sadiq), Imam Muhammad ibn
allHasan al-Shaybaanee, and Imam Abu Yusuf al-Ansaree.
Wassalam
Prayer (Salat),According to Five Islamic Schools of Law
(Part V)
By 'Allama M. J. Maghniyyah
Essentials of Salat (Continued)
5. Ruku'(bowing):
There is consensus among the schools that ruku' is obligatory (wajib) in
salat but they differ regarding the extent to which it is wajib and the
necessity of staying motionless in that position. The Hanafis observe: What
is obligatory is to bend down in any possible manner, and staying
motionless is not obligatory. The remaining schools consider it obligatory
to kneel down until the palms of the hands of the performer reach his knees
and to stay motionless during bowing.
The Shafi'is, Hanafis and Malikis state: It is not obligatory to recite
anything during ruku', though it is sunnah that the performer say: "Sub-
hana Rabbl al-'azim. " The Imamis and the Hanbalis consider tasbih to be
obligatory during ruku' and its formula in the opinion of the Hanbalis is
"Subhana Rabi al-'azim", and according to the Imamis "Subhana Rabbi al-
'azim wa bi hamdih" or just "SubhanAllah" thrice. It is encouraged
(mustahabb) in the opinion of the Imamis to add after the tasbih, to ask
for belssing of Allah on Mohammed (S) and his Family (Allahumma sali 'ala
Muhammadin wa 'ali Mohammed).
The Hanafis say: It is not obligatory to return to the standing position
after ruku', and it is sufficient, though makruh (discouraged), to perform
sajdah (prostration) straight-away. The other schools consider it
obligatory to return to the standing position and mustahabb to recite the
tasmi', which is to say: "Sami 'allahu li man hamidah" (God hears one who
praises Him). According to the Imamis, it is obligatory to stay motionless
in this standing (qiyyam) too.
6. Sujud (prostration):
There is consensus among the schools that sujud (prostration) is obligatory
twice in each rak'ah. They differ regarding its details, as to whether it
is obligatory to prostrate with all the seven parts of the body touching
the ground while performing it or if it is sufficient to lay on the ground
only some of them. These seven parts are; the forehead, the palms, the
knees and the big toes. The Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanafis state: It is
obligatory to lay only the forehead on the ground in sujud, and laying down
the other parts is encouraged (mustahabb). The Imamis and the Hanbalis
observe: It is obligatory to lay on the ground all the seven parts while
performing sujud. It has been narrated from the Hanbalis that they add the
nose to these seven, thus making them eight. The difference of opinion
regarding reciting tasbih and being motionless during sujud is similar to
the difference mentioned concerning ruku'. Those who consider them
obligatory there, consider them here as well. The Hanafis do not consider
it obligatory to sit between the sajdahs; the remaining schools consider it
obligatory.
7. Tashahhud:
Tashahhud is at most recited twice in salat; the first, after the second
rak'ah of zuhr, 'asr. maghrib and 'isha' prayers, which is not followed by
taslim; the second in the last rak'ah of the two-, three-, and four- rak'ah
prayers, which is followed by taslim. The Imamis and the Hanbalis state:
The first tashahhud is obligatory. The remaining schools consider it
mustahabb and not obligatory. The second tashahhud is considered obligatory
by the Shafi'is, Imamis and Hanbalis, and mustahabb by the Malikis and
Hanafis (Bidayat al-mujtahid, v1, p125).
The following are the forms of tashahhud observed by the differentschools:
The Hanafis:
"attahiyyatu lillahi wassalawatu wattayyibatu wassalamu 'alayka ayyuha
annabiyyu warahmatullahi wabarakatuhu, assalamu 'alayna wa 'ala
`abadillahi assaliheena, ash-hadu anna la ilaha illa Allah, waAsh-hadu
anna Mohammmedan 'abduhu warasuluhu."
The Malikis:
"Attahiyyatu lillah, azzakiyyatu lillah, attayyibatu assalawatu lillah.
Assalamu alayka ayyuha annabiyyu warahmatu allahi wabarakatuhu,
assalamu alayna wa 'ala 'abadi Allahi assaliheena, ash-hadu anna la
ilaha illa Allah, wa ash-hadu anna muhammadan 'abduhu warasuluhu.
The Shafi'is:
"Attahiyyatu almubarakatu assalawatu attayyibatu lillah, assalamu
'alayka ayyuha annabiyyu warahmatu allahi wabarakatuhu, assalamu alayna
wa 'ala 'abadi allahi assalaiheena. Ash-hadu anna la ilaha illa Allah,
wa ash-hadu anna sayyidana muhammadan rasulu Allah."
The Hanbalis:
"Attahiyyatu lillahi wa-assalawatu wa-attayyibatu. assalamu 'alayka
ayyuha annabiyyu warahmatu allahi wabarakatuhu, assalamu alayna wa 'ala
'abadi allahi assalaiheena. Ash-hadu anna la ilaha illa Allah, wahdahu
la shareekalah, wa ash-hadu anna sayyidana muhammadan 'abduhu wa-
rasuluhu. Allahumma salli ala Muhammadin."
The Imamis:
"Ash-hadu anna la ilaha illa Allah, wahdahu la shareeka lah, wa ash-
hadu anna muhammadan 'abduhu wa-rasuluhu. Allahumma salli ala Muhammadin
wa 'ali Muhammed."
8. Tasleem (farewell)
The Shafi'is, Malikis, and Hanbalis observe: Tasleem is obligatory. The
Hanafis do not consider it obligatory (Bidayat al-Mujtahid, v1, p126).
The Imamis differ among themselves, a group considers it obligatory, while
others, including al-Mufid, al-Shaykh al-Tusi and al-'Allamah al-Hilli,
regard it as mustahabb.
Tasleem (farewell) has only one form in the opinion of the four Sunni
schools, and it is "Assalamu alaikum warahmatu allah". The Hanbalis say:
It is obligatory to recite it