The History of the Mosques of Turkey

By: Ramineh Rezazadeh
Although Istanbul has a history of more than 2,000 years, it is not a city whose antiquity is apparent at first glance. Much of the cultural heritage that Istanbul has acquired as a result of its being a capital of several empires is hidden away amidst modern buildings lining streets that have frequently been redrawn from one generation to the next. Palaces, mansions, fountains, and monuments of every kind lurk silently within the bustling vitality of this giant metropolis' day-to-day existence and patiently wait to be discovered and seen by those with a more discerning and inquisitive eye.
Throughout its long history, Istanbul has never been an ordinary city. When it became the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and was renamed Constantinople, a marble shaft called the Milion was erected in order to mark the spot as the center of the world - the world's "ground zero" as it were, the point from which all roads radiated and all distances were measured.
The City of Iznik is considered to be the cradle of Ottoman architecture and it is here that the first Ottoman mosque, the Haji Ozbek Mosque was built. This mosque which was constructed in 1334 is noted for its singular dome, a wall construction consisting of one row of cut stone and three rows of brick along with a 3-room congregation area. During the reign of Orhan Bey, Kara Kalil Hayrettin Pasha had the Yesil Cami (Green Mosque) built by architect Haci Musa in Iznik that was completed after his death by his son, Ali Pasha in 1392, with the exterior covered with marble blocks. The materials that went into the construction of the minaret showed the continuation of Seljuk traditions.
Ottoman architecture, which got its start in Iznik showed development that reached a monumental scale in Bursa. The mosque that was constructed for Osman Gazi's son, Alaeddin Bey in 1326 and the Orhan Bey Mosque that was constructed in 1339 have both been restored several times over the years. From their flashy exterior design, both the Murad Hudavendigar Mosque as well as its surrounding complex, which were built in Bursa - Cekrige (1382), give off a palatial appearance. In the year 1382, while he was still the son of the Sultan, Yilirim Bayezid had a complex of buildings constructed in the town of Mudurnu, which consisted of a single-domed mosque, a school of theology and two baths.
He also had the Ulu Mosque of Bergama constructed in the year 1398. The grand mosque that he is truly famous for, is the Ulu Mosque in Bursa, which was constructed between 1396-1400. The pulpit of the 20-domed mosque is the masterpiece of Haci Mehmed ibn Abdulaziz ibn el Huki, who was from Antep. The progress of Ottoman architecture however, was badly shaken and even stalled for a while at the beginning of the 15th Century. It regained some of its past liveliness when Yildirim's son Celebi Sultan Mehmed had the architect Haci Ivaz commence work with the construction of the Yesil Cami (Green Mosque) and its surrounding complex (1424).
Subsequently, architectural planning continued to develop without a break. The construction of this Mosque that was built entirely form cut-stone and marble, took 10 years. The marvelous arched gateway, the external niche, the ornamentation on the frames and windows, all reflect an attentive stone masonry. Subsequent to Bursa and Iznik and prior to the capture of Istanbul, the temporary capital of Edirne reflected the highest level of the art of the Ottoman Empire.
The first monumental construction was that of the Edirne Eski Mosque, which was started in 1403 by Emir Suleyman Celebi and was completed by Celebi Sultan Mehmed in the year 1414. The architecture of the Mosque, built with 9-domes upon four heavy square pillars, belonged to Haci Alaeddin of Konya. Built by Sultan Murad II in 1436, the Edirne Muradiye Mosque was named after him and with its porcelain coating and porcelain niche, constitutes the most outstanding and important example of Turkish decorative art, second only to the Yesil Mosque in Bursa.
In 1446, during the rule of Murat II, Yahsi Bey had the Imaret Mosque built in Tire. This mosque is important in that for the first time ever, it utilized a half-dome design and a 5-room final congregation place in its front section. As far as architectural development was concerned, the Uc Serefeli Mosque that Murat II had built in Edirne between the years 1438-1447 was a truly surprising masterpiece. It was here that flying buttresses were constructed to support the dome for the first time.
Another first was applied here, with four minarets, which were twisted, hollow-grooved, diamond-shaped and zigzagged. There were two inscriptions that bore the name of Sultan Murad and the pediments of both the courtyard windows were made with dark blue and white colored porcelain tiles. The Mezit Bey Mosque, constructed in 1434, along with the Darul Hadis that was constructed in 1435, are the other major works that enriched Edirne.
After conquering Istanbul in 1453, Sultan Mehmed opened a new epoch in which 300 mosques (85 of which were domed), 57 theology schools, 59 Turkish baths, 29 covered markets, bridges, palaces, castles and city walls were constructed in various cities throughout the Empire. The fist mosques that were constructed in Istanbul after its conquest followed the layouts of the mosques that were built in Iznik, Bursa, and Edirne, but later on, a new style gradually emerged and the half-dome became more prominent.
The first application of this in Istanbul was seen with the Fatih Mosque and its surrounding complex, which was constructed by architect Sinaneddin Yusuf between 1462-1470. The complex which consisted of a theology school, health clinic, printing facilities, caravanserai, Turkish bath and tombs, saw its mosque collapse in the 1765 earthquake, whereas today's existing structure with its four half-domes, was built later on, by Sultan Mustafa II. However, the mosque's courtyard, the bottom part of the minarets and the niche were remnants of the destroyed mosque.
Yavuz Sultan Selim (1512-1520) was the successor of Bayezid, who during his eight years on the throne, participated in major campaigns while nothing new appeared on the architecture front. In the meanwhile, the Governor of Diyarbakir, Biyikli Mehmet Pasha had the first Ottoman Mosque with four half-domes, built in his province between 1516-1520. Yavuz Sultan Selim was not able to complete the Mosque that was to be named after him. However, his son Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, completed the half-finished Mosque. Ottoman art lived through its most brilliant period under the rule of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566). In addition to other artists of this age, it fostered a genius by the name of Sinan the Architect whose splendid works of art symbolized and highlighted the power and energy of the Ottoman Empire.
Mimar Koca Sinan, the "Great Architect Sinan", was born of Greek Christian parents in Anatolia, Turkey in 1489. Drafted as a soldier into the Ottoman Royal House in 1512, he quickly advanced from the rank of calvary officer to construction officer. As construction officer he built bridges and fortifications. In 1538, he was appointed "Architect of the Abode of Felicity."
During his career, Sinan built hundreds of buildings including mosques, palaces, harems, chapels, tombs, schools, alms-houses, madrassahs, caravanserais, granaries, fountains, aqueducts and hospitals. Of this diverse group of works, his mosques have been most influential.
For his mosques, Sinan adopted the design of the Hagia Sophia to create a building in which the central dome would appear weightless and in which the interior surfaces would appear bathed in light. He used buttressing on the exterior of his buildings in order to open the interiors. He often designed his mosques as part of a complex comprising schools, baths, guest houses, and hospitals.
Generally considered the greatest of all Ottoman architects, Sinan's glorious career spanned for 50 years. His great mosques mark the archetypal image of Turkish Ottoman architecture. Sinan died in Istanbul (Turkey) in 1588.
In 1522, Sinan the Architect, completed the half-built Yavuz Sultan Mosque and in the same year, he also finished the Fatih Pasha Mosque in Diyarbakir. In the year 1523, he built the Mosque and the accompanying complex of the ex-Governor to Egypt, Coban Mustafa Pasha in Gebze, near Istanbul. It was in 1439 that Sinan the Architect constructed his first masterpiece in Istanbul, the Haseki Complex. It comprised a health clinic, an elementary school, a theology school, a fountain, and a soup kitchen and while it made up a whole unit, it was built in a completely separate place from the Mosque.
At the age of 54, Sinan the Architect considered himself to an apprentice when he built the Sehzade Mosque between 1543-1548, because it was here that he encountered the problem posed by the half-dome, though he came up with a very nice central structure with four half-domes. Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent ordered the Mosque to be built in memory of his beloved son, Prince Mehmet. The Sehzade Complex, the construction of which was completed before the Mosque, was made up the Tomb of Sehzade Mehmed, a theology school, a soup kitchen and a printing house.
In 1548, Sinan the Architect built a mosque and accompanying complex for the Sultan's daughter, Mihrimah Sultan in Uskudar. Use of three half-domes was the second innovation of the mosque. In addition, the fact that there was a second final congregation place outside, and an expanded width brought us face to face with a rather different mosque. Sinan followed this up by building an incredible complex and mosque for Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, construction of which was started in the year 1550 and completed in 1557. It was with the Sulemaniye that two half-domes were utilized in the construction of a mosque. Along with the courtyard with a big fountain, the mosque's interior and outer appearance were considered as unified entity. The grand dome, which is supported in the middle by four heavy columns, is also supported on both the entrance side and the southern direction with half-domes. Minarets are in the courtyard's Four Corners.
In 1555, Sinan the Architect built a mosque for Kaptani Derya Sinan Pasha in Besiktas. With rows constructed of cut-stone and brick, he had experimented with a different wall bonding. Sinan the Architect constructed the Vizier Kara Ahmat Pasha Complex in Topkapi between 1554-1558, the Molla Celebi Mosque in Findikli in 1561, and a mosque in Edirnekapi that was built between 1562-1565 for the daughter of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, Mihrimah Sultan.
The domes over the courtyard portico and the final congregation room were built lower than normal, giving this mosque that had a single minaret, a more definite appearance. In 1561, he built a mosque in Eminonu for Rustem Pasha, who was the Sultan's vizier and son-in-law. Sinan incorporated an 8-legged system, of which four were built into the walls and four were left standing independently. He also decorated it with the period's Iznik porcelain tiles.
For the Sultan Suleyman's daughter, Esma Sultan, who was also the wife of the Grand Vizier Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, he constructed the Sokullu Complex on hilly terrain in Istanbul Kadirga in the year 1571. Again, he chose to decorate the interior of the mosque with porcelain tiles. In 1573, Sinan built the Piyale Pasha Mosque in Istanbul Kasimpasa, in which he reverted to the style of the old Ulu Mosques by using the six equal dome layout. In 1566, his son Selim II (1566-1574) succeeded Suleyman the Magnificent, whereas Sinan constructed the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne in his name (1569-1575).
Sinan had reached the peak of his profession and it was at this time that he was heard as declaring, "I showed that I was an apprentice with the Sehzade Mosque, an able contractor with the Suleymaniye Mosque and an expert with the Selimiye Mosque." The towering dome and four minarets of this mosque, which took six years to build, was planted on the highest hill of Edirne and could be seen from far distances.
The dome's weight was supported by eight interior columns and buttressing belts that were situated between the columns. Besides, the mosque's architectural design, there were also the decorative components such as the fine workmanship that went into the single-piece stone pulpit, the porcelain decor of the window pediments and the walls around the niche, the colorful written works found in the private galleries and the fine manner in which the portico courtyard presented itself. Selim II died in 1574 and was succeeded to the throne by his son Murat III (1574-1595).
Until then, Sinan had been in the service of four Sultans, but in spite of his advanced years, he went ahead and constructed the Muradiye Mosque in Manisa between 1583-1785 for Sultan Murad III. He continued to yield great influence even after his death and well into the 17th Century.
There were magnificent masterpieces created in Turkey in this Century that is rightly known as the Late Classic Age. The first of these was the Yeni Mosque in Eminonu. Architect Davud Aga had laid the foundations of this Mosque and its surrounding complex, for the mother of Sultan Mehmed II, Safiye Sultan in 1598. When he died in the following year from plague, Dalgic Ahmed took over and raised the structure up to its lower windows. When Mehmed III died, his mother, was sent to the old palace whereas construction was halted in 1603. Construction of this mosque was finally completed in 1663, by the mother of Mehmet IV, the Queen Mother Turhan Hatice Sultan. Sultan Ahmed I succeeded Mehmed III to the throne (1603-1617) and commissioned the Architect Sedefkar Mehmet Aga, trained by Sinan the Architect and Davud Aga, to construct the Sultanahmet Mosque, which for all the blue porcelain tiles that decorated its interior, also came to be known as the Blue Mosque.
Later on, there were a number of changes in the Sultanate. For a time, during the reign of Ahmed III (1703-1730) and under the impetus of his grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha, a period of peace ensued. In the meantime, due to its relations with France, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by the Baroque and Rococo styles that were popular in Europe. During a thirty-year period known as the Tulip Period, all eyes were turned to the West, and instead of monumental and classical works, villas and pavilions were built around Istanbul. However, it was about this time when the construction on the Ishak Pasha Palace in Eastern Anatolia was going on, (1685-1784). With the death of Ahmed III, Mahmud I took the throne (1730-1754). It was during this period that Baroque-style mosques began to be constructed.
The most important of these was the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, construction of which began by Sultan Mahmud I in the year 1748 and was completed by Sultan Osman II (1754-1757) in 1755. There were eleven steps that one had to walk over in order to reach the porticoed courtyard; and the interior that was completely covered in marble, was decorated in a highly Baroque fashion. A second work in which the Baroque style played a more prominent role was the Laleli Mosque, in which Sultan Mustafa III (1757-1774) commissioned the Architect Tahir Aga.

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque
The Cathedral of St. Nicholas/Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque is the largest medieval building in Famagusta and was commenced in 1300 A.D. It must be noted that the great Cathedrals of the Middle Ages often took more than 100 years to complete, so work on the St. Nicholas was completed c. 1400 AD.
The Gothic style of architecture closely resembles the great Cathedral of Rheims in Paris, France.
The main facade of the building is at the west front as indicated in the picture . There are three large gabled and canopied doorways as can be observed, the vast amount of carved stone-work being very impressive.
Above the main central door is a large wheel-window set in decorative tracery, a common feature of French Cathedrals, popularly known as a rose window. There is a similar rose window in the refectory hall at the Bellapais Abbey. The upper parts of the two towers suffered damage during the Ottoman bombardment of 1571 and when the Ottoman Turks captured the town from the Venetians, the Cathedral was converted into a mosque and a minaret was added on.
The full name of the Cathedral is the `Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque'. In accordance with Muslim religion, all images of the human form in stone, fresco, or in stained glass windows were removed or plastered over. However, all aspects of the Gothic tracery have been preserved. The canopied doorways of the west front are typical of French cathedrals. No doubt, the niches on either side of the porch contained stone statues of Biblical saints as in the Notre Dame, Paris. This style of ecclesiastical architecture is known as the "Decorative Period".
The interior is of course a Muslim prayer hall, the floor being fully covered with carpets. The main hall in a church is known as the nave, and here the Lusignans were crowned as kings of Cyprus. Traditions claim that they also received the crown of Jerusalem, as by about 1350 the Crusaders had failed to take Palestine and so these French knights came to Cyprus to set up a Jerusalem monarchy in exile!
The lancet windows were probably decorated with stained glass but it was unsafe to have wide windows since Cyprus is prone to severe earthquakes. Also because of this, the nave had to be strengthened with flying buttresses. In 1571, altars and tombs were swept away and all frescoes were plastered over but guides can show visitors a few medieval tombs that have survived, in the north aisle.
Besides the most beautiful examples of Iznik porcelain tiles that have decorated mosques and tombs in the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries, incredible works of art, such as dishes, cups and oil-lamps can be found in mosques. After the 17 century, the art of Iznik porcelain was taken over by that of Kutahya.
Following the acceptance of Islam by the Turkish people, branches of art that were quite restricted, such as painting and sculpture, latched onto new interpretations, one of which was the art of miniature work.