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Mystical Epistemology
By Zahir Davdani
Since epistemology is the ‘philosophical theory of knowledge’[1], ‘the study of theories of knowledge or ways of knowing’[2], and ‘the theory or science that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of knowledge’[3], this essay will investigate the origin, nature, methods and limits of mystical knowledge, and the ways of knowing in the context of mystical knowledge.
The analysis will be carried out by first briefly defining who the mystics are. After this, what constitutes knowledge according to the mystics will be considered and the manner of obtaining this knowledge will be presented, along with a description of the nature of mystical knowledge. Next there will be a discussion of the limits and scope of the knowledge so obtained. And finally, mystical knowledge will be contrasted with other methods of knowledge schools.
Definition of the Mystics
The mystics of Islam, known as the Sufis, are those who refer to themselves as the guardians of the Divine Mysteries (asrar). These secrets they obtain not through the exercise of theoretical intellect and reasoning, but rather by a process of successive grades of self-purification granting them inner intuitive insight (basirah). An insight which provides them with Godly knowledge (ma’rifah) and an overflowing of divine love. As Allamah Tabatabai declares:
“Gnosis is a perfect way of worship, based on love, not on fear or hope. It is a way of understanding the inner facts of religion instead of being contended with its outward and perceptible form.”[4]
From a scientific perspective, the subject matter of Irfan (Islamic Mysticism) is God and His attributes. So the tawhid (monotheism) of the gnostic is to reach a stage of existence where he perceives Allah as the only really existing Being. Thus Irfan has two components: Practical Irfan, which is the spiritual journey of the mystic towards God, and Theoretical Irfan, which presents, in a logical way, theories about God, the universe and man – based on the ma’rifah mentioned above.
What constitutes knowledge according to the Mystics
Knowledge, for the mystics, is only that by which one becomes aware of the true nature of things. And an awareness which is characterised by absolute certainty:
“…since it derives from a verified unveiling which is not seized by obfuscation. This contrasts with the knowledge which is actualised through reflective consideration (al-nazar al-fikri), which is never safe from obfuscation and bewilderment, nor from rejection of that which leads to it.”[5]
Moreover, ibn al-‘Arabi explains that knowledge which does not lead back to God by a road of felicity does not deserve to be called knowledge. Instead he refers to it as “surmise” (zann). He also states that “knowledge of other than God is a waste of time (tadyi al-waqt), since God created the cosmos only for knowledge of Him.”[6]
Hence what the mystics consider as deserving to be called knowledge is best described in the words of al-Shaykh al-Akbar once again:
“…By knowledge I mean only knowledge of God, of the next world, and of that which is appropriate for this world, in relationship to that for which this world was created and established.”[7]
Indeed, the mystics categorize only as hakim (possessor of wisdom) the one who has detached himself from the limitation of body, form and individuality by a process of spiritual journey. As Ibn Sina observes:
“When an initiate (salik) practices enough ascetic discipline an spiritual effort, his or her soul and secret (sirr) becomes a mirror which reflects the Real (al-Haqq).”[8]
In a beautiful piece (most of which will be quoted later), Rene Guenon (Sheikh ‘Abd Al Wahid Yahya) explains that:
“It is the attainment of effective consciousness of supra-individual states that is the real object of metaphysics, or better still, of metaphysical knowledge itself…Theoretical knowledge, which is only indirect and in some sense symbolic, is merely a preparation, though indispensable, for true knowledge.”[9]
So although true knowledge is only that which is by unveiling, philosophy also has its place in the scheme, as every seeker of the Truth, be he philosopher or mystic, is classified only in accordance with their correspondence to the Centre. And since ontological status reflects epistemological standing, it follows that the knowledge of one should be more exoteric and of the other more esoteric. Al-Ghazzali explains this as follows:
“You should know that intellectual sciences are holistic in their content, and from which theoretical knowledge issues. It is both theoretical knowledge and intellectual knowledge that form Sufi knowledge. There are many aspects of Sufi knowledge, such as hal, waqt, shawq, wajd, sukr, sahw, ithbat, mahw, faqr, walayah and iradah. Hikmah can be attained only through the given knowledge. Those who do not reach that cannot be named “sage” (al-hakim) since wisdom is a gift o God.”[10]
Having said this, we should note that ibn al-‘Arabi makes absolutely clear the difference in status between the various types of knowledge. Here we quote him in this regard:
“The sciences are if three levels.[The first] is the science of reason…
The second is the science of states (ahwal) which cannot be reached except through tasting…
The third knowledge is the science of the mysteries (asrar). It is the knowledge which is “beyond the stage of reason.”
…The knower of this last kind – the science of mysteries – knows and exhausts all sciences…So there is no knowledge more noble than this all-encompassing knowledge, which comprises all objects of knowledge…
Sound knowledge is only that which God throws into the heart of the knower. It is a divine light for which God singles out any of His servants whom He will, whether angel, messenger, prophet, friend, or person of faith.”[11]
Finally, we end this section with a chilling phrase, form al-Shaykh al-Akbar, that echoes in the mind long after one has read it, and which exquisitely sums up the epistemological system of the mystics:
“He who has no unveiling has no knowledge (man la kashf lah la ilm lah).”[12]
Manner of obtaining Mystical Knowledge
Given that the object of mystical knowledge is the knowledge of God – who alone is Real and hence all encompassing, and that the only way to know God is by the directive of the Prophet: “He who knows his soul, knows his Lord,” therefore one must ask as to how does one know one’s own soul? Ayatullah Hasan Zadeh Amoli provides the answer:
“The knowledge of the soul could not be obtained except through inner unveilings and esoteric visions. This is not obtained but by self training and mujahadah in private accompanied by strong seclusion from people and severance from vanities of the world and its futile desires.”[13]
In a phrase then, the method is self-purification. But, it is easier said than done, as we can see from the following passage by Sadr al-Din Qunyawi:
“Thus, gaining a clear, direct, intuitive perception (basirah) of the truth in its entirety requires, besides divine grace, which is the main factor, the disabling of all outer and inner faculties and a cleansing of the mind of all knowledge and belief. One must empty one’s mind and soul form everything except the true goal and then turn wholeheartedly and with one’s entire mind and soul toward God. The seeker must then unify his mind and purify his will and purpose and rid his self of all worldly attachments, imitated and borrowed virtues and superficial and illusory limitations in their various forms. By constantly meditating upon and nourishing such an inner, spiritual state, and by guarding against the least wavering and wandering, and through perseverance and steadfastness, he can create correspondence and harmony between his soul and the invisible sacred realm that is the source of all perfection and divine manifestation.”[14]
In fact, the journey in to one’s own soul is the journey to the knowledge of God, as the human soul encompasses the creation of Allah. So, in reality, the different stages of qualitative knowledge correspond to different stages of ontological being. The wayfarer must therefore pass through the seven stages of purification of nafs (soul): al-nafs al-ammarah (the lower soul), al-nafs al-lawwamah (the self-blaming soul), al-nafs al-mulhamah (the inspired soul), al-nafs al-mutma’innah (the soul at peace), al-nafs al-radiyyah (the pleased soul), al-nafs al-mardiyyah (the being-pleased soul) and al-nafs al-kamilah (the perfected soul). After this the traveller moves through the stages of the purification of the ruh (spirit), in which he/she successively reaches the inner secrets of the: Qalb (heart), Ruh (spirit), Sirr (secret), Sirr al-Sirr (Secret of Secret), Khifa (Arcane) and finally Akhfa (Most Arcane). The Most Arcane (Akhfa) is directly receptive to Divine Reality, which illuminates the purified traveller. Only one of this degree can be called a theosopher, a philosopher or a sage.
As for the method of undergoing these successive stages, one must come to understand that riyazat (spiritual exercises) and self-mortification are the provisions for this journey. The entire first leg of the journey, which culminates in fana (annihilation in Allah), centres around abandoning every worldly attachment for the sake of proximity to Allah – as the Prophet commanded: “Mutu qabla an tamootoo” (“Die before you die”). In fact, the five instrumentals, which are pre-requisites for the state required for the spiritual journey, are silence, hunger, night vigil, seclusion and continuous remembrance of Allah.
Then the traveller enters the Spiritual World, and while keeping one eye on the lower self and the other on the Divine names and attributes, advances till total fana (annihilation in Allah) – at the three levels of actions, attributes and essence. The knowledge of one at this stage is of a lofty degree for the Real has become his very faculties through which he perceives, as the famous Hadith Qudsi states[15]. Ibn Arabi makes this point as follows:
“We followed their authority in knowledge until the Real was our hearing and our sight, so we came to know things through God…”[16]
Nature of Mystical Knowledge
Above all else, if one characteristic feature of mystical knowledge were to stand out, it would be the overwhelming feeling of bliss, elation and love that it confers upon the one perceiving the knowledge – as the following quotations show:
“One of the characteristics of metareason is that its perception of the Supreme Truth is accompanied by an intense ecstasy inexpressible in words.”[17]
“One of the characteristics of the realm of metareason is love.”[18]
“If he crosses from spiritual exercise to attainment of the Truth…The lofty pleasures are then poured on him.”[19]
“By God, I feel so much love that it seems as though the skies would be rent asunder, the stars fall and the mountains move away if I burdened them with it: such is my experience of love…”[20]
It is the direct tasting (dhawq) of Reality that is the source of this, and is more pleasurable than anything in the world.
The following passage by Rene Guenon (Sheikh ‘Abd Al Wahid Yahya), as promised earlier, very nicely brings out certain aspects of mystical knowledge and its ultimate goal:
“To comprehend universal principles directly, the transcendent intellect must itself be of the universal order; it is no longer an individual faculty…it is this that makes metaphysical knowledge possible, and that knowledge is not a human knowledge…because this being that is human in one of its aspects is at the same time something other and more than a human being…it is from this human state, itself contingent, that we are at present compelled to start in order to attain higher states and finally the supreme and unconditioned state…The highest objective is the absolutely unconditioned state, free from limitation; for this reason it is completely inexpressible…In this Unconditioned State all other states of being find their place.”[21]
The ‘inexpressibility’ mentioned in the above piece is the other salient feature of mystical knowledge. All shades and schools of Sufi knowledge emphatically declare that language obstructs, rather than communicates, understanding:
“…The things we have just pointed out are grasped by the intuition and this apprehension is no less clear and precise than reason’s comprehension of axioms. The only difference is that intuitive perception cannot be expressed in words. Undoubtedly, then, words are unable to transmit these truths to the minds of others and make others understand them. Thus, whoever discovers the Truth becomes dumb.”[22]
Limits and Scope of Mystical Knowledge
It would be understandable if the discussion presented so far led one to believe that mystical knowledge is limitless, and indeed this is true from a certain aspect. As al-Kindi says, the soul is a light from God, which when detached from the limitations of the body is able to know everything and therefore nothing is hidden from it.
Nevertheless, ibn al-‘Arabi, in the Futuhat, gives a precise explanation of the scope of mystical knowledge. He first categorically establishes that knowledge of God’s Essence is impossible, and that the Prophet commanded: “Reflect not upon God’s Essence.” Only the properties and effects of His names and attributes can be known, that is the self-disclosure of the Essence through the divine names and the cosmos:
“We have nothing of knowledge other than attributes of declaring incomparability and attributes of acts. He who supposes that he possesses knowledge of a positive attribute of Self has supposed wrongly, for such attributes would limit (hadd) Him, while His Essence has no limits.”[23]
Moreover, as God Himself is infinite, the objects of God’s knowledge are infinite. So for man, the seeker of knowledge, the acquisition of knowledge is endless. Hence human knowledge is potentially infinite, though only a finite number of objects of knowledge exist at any given time and only a finite number can be known by a finite thing:
“God possesses relationships, faces, and realities without limit. Though they all go back to a Single Entity, yet the relationships are not qualified by existence, so they are not touched by finitude…The relationships are infinite, so the creation of the possible things is infinite.”[24]
Contrast of Mystical Knowledge with Reason
The principal difference between the knowledge of the mystic and that of the philosopher is that the former attains knowledge through unveiling (metareason) and the latter through reason. When the human subject knows through reflection, the mode of its knowing is called “reason” (aql), and when it knows directly from God, the mode of knowing is called the “heart” (qalb). In fact, the only real difference is in the modality of knowing, for the knowing subject is the same.
The original purpose of reason is to comprehend axioms or first principles that do not require a process of rational or logical analysis to be understood. In order to understand complex theoretical and speculative issues, one must rely on a faculty of metareason that has no need of logical reasoning and thought and whose relation to these issues is like that of intelligence to axioms or first principles.
With respect to Divine attributes, A’yn al-Quzat-e Hamadani informs us that reason and thought can comprehend those attributes which are found in other creatures as well – such as wisdom and creativeness. But it is unable to comprehend attributes such as majesty, greatness, beauty and elegance. He further explains that the relationship between reason and metareason is like the relationship between the body and the soul.
In fact, knowledge of abstract realities, as they exist in divine knowledge, is impossible for reason. This is because knowledge is based on correspondence and there is no correspondence between abstract spiritual realities and the knowing subjects. Hence, intellectual grasp of these realities must be limited to their attributes and effects. It is, however, possible to know these realities, though not by reliance on theoretical and intellectual understanding, but rather only when the spiritual seeker has been fully liberated from all worldly limitations, conditioning and attachment. The fundamental function of reflection, therefore, is to lead man to the understanding that he cannot reach knowledge of God through his own resources.
Notes:
[1] Collins English Dictionary
[2] www.pbs.org/ faith and reason
[3] Mckechnie, 1979, 614
[4] Allamah Tabatabai
[5] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 2 297.33, (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.149)
[6] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 4 221.20, (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.150)
[7] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 2 370.4, (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.148)
[8] Ibn Sina, al-Najat, ed. Al-Kurdi (Tehran, n.d.): 268, (History of Islamic Philosophy, p.948)
[9] Rene Guenon, “Oriental Metaphysics”, in The Sword of Gnosis, ed. J. Needleman (London, 1986): 47, 49, 51, (History of Islamic Philosophy, p.950)
[10] Al-Ghazzali, Risalat al-laduniyyah, ed. M. al-Kurdi (Cairo, 1910): 22-31, (History of Islamic Philosophy, p.952)
[11] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 1 31.11 & 1 218.19, (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.170)
[12] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 1 218.19, (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.170)
[13] Ayatullah Hasan Zadeh Amoli, Sharh al-’uyun, p. 82, (M. S. Bahmanpour, BA Islamic Studies)
[14] Sadr al-Din Qunyawi, I’jaz al-Bayan fi Ta’wil al-Qur’an, Hyderabad, 1989, pp. 33-34, (Yahaya Yasrebi, The Epistemology of the Mystics part 2)
[15] Mishkat al-anwar (ibn ‘Arabi’s Hadith collection), no.91
[16] William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge
[17] Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani, ed. Afif A’sirian, Tehran: Tehran University Press, Chapter 20, (Yahaya Yasrebi, The Epistemology of the Mystics part 1)
[18] Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani, ed. Afif A’sirian, Tehran: Tehran University Press, Chapter 26, (Yahaya Yasrebi, The Epistemology of the Mystics part 1)
[19] Ibn Sina, al-‘Isharat, Section 9, Chapter 16
[20] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya
[21] Rene Guenon, “Oriental Metaphysics”, in The Sword of Gnosis, ed. J. Needleman (London, 1986): 47, 49, 51, (History of Islamic Philosophy, p.950 - 951)
[22] Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani, ed. Afif A’sirian, Tehran: Tehran University Press, Chapter 59, (Yahaya Yasrebi, The Epistemology of the Mystics part 1)
[23] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 2 619.11,27, 620.9 (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.155)
[24] Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, 2 671.5, (William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge, p.156)
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