|
Philosophical Theology
Knowing God In this section the main emphasis is on the Eminent Greek Philosophers i.e. 'Plato' and 'Aristotle'. However, it is appropriate first to briefly look into the theology during “The Period Of Fantasies” and “The Cosmologists Before Socrates” and then during the time of Socrates.
Chapter One: Period of Fantasy
The period before Philosophy is usually propounded as the period of fantasy in Greece and the most fundamental matter, which is pertaining to the fantasy of this period, is the matter of gods. It seems that choosing the name 'fantasy' for this period is having a close connection with the matter of gods and divine myths such that the Greeks without any rational and philosophical analysis were directly considering a supernatural agent for every natural, social and ethical manifestations and rather for every thing which they encountered in this world and they expounded the happenings with those agents (living) out of this world. These super-natural agents were the same numerous gods of the Greeks which were having close connection with the various matters of this world.
Thus, for expounding the happenings of this world, the matter of gods was propounded in the Greek culture with extensive and simple fantasies and without rational and philosophical examination. These gods, who attracted the whims and fancies of the Greeks, were accompanied with analogy, simile and syllogism for justifying the natural and human affairs. Therefore the Greek gods were mostly having human figures while some were possessing beastly forms and they took shape from the syllogism and simile of gods with the natural agents.
The journey of fantasy did not end here by way of simile. Rather in the same way, they contemplated biography, ethics, manner of living, ancestors and sons for the gods and these were explained in the mould of myths.
Of course, as it was mentioned in the first section the Greek fantasies were in the form of images, which were placed upon the previous matter. This prior matter was the divine 'Fitrat' and the reminding of the previous religions. That the Greeks turned towards fantasies of gods and not to any other thing for analyzing the events of this world shows their special condition and state of affairs.
From the time when human beings began to expropriate the divine 'Fitrat' (innate disposition) through fantasies, the human Greek culture was born. In the subsequent periods, this kind of expropriation underwent a change and took the form of philosophical expropriation and finally mystical expropriation.
It appears that the above explanation explains the most fundamental factor in the multiplicity of gods. However, this does not mean that other factors like political and tribal considerations were not having any effect in aggravating the multiplicity of gods. Similarly other justifications for the origin of fantasy of gods have been explained, which are not inconsistent with the above explanation and it is needless to mention them.
With regard to the above matter, we mention here a testimony: “Political and tribal separations added fuel to so many gods and made impossible the worship of One God…When the religious fantasies of the Greeks came out from the local limits it became the cause of myths and common gods of the Greeks. For every social and natural manifestation, for each of powers of the land and the heavens, for every joy, good fortunes, evils and works the Greeks considered one source or one god for them. The Greek gods were having human figures. This too is another specialty of Greece and no other nation has ever imagined there gods resemble so closely the human beings… With regard to each of the gods, there existed a myth, which would clarify their race, their human connection and similarly the customs related to them. These myths which would arise either out of the local exigencies or was the product of the poets brought into existence the beliefs, philosophy, etiquette and history of ancient Greece… In the Greek myths, the world is not the creation of gods. The world was existing prior to the gods.” (Will Durrant - History of Civilization; New edition; chapter 8; Pg. 197-203)
The theology at the time prior to philosophy can be summarized and said as such: During this period, the gods were propounded in a polytheistic manner through fantasies, imaginations, simile and syllogism. This theology in general is categorically opposite to the divine theology and this disagreement will be discussed in the section of religions. However the point which is worthy of attention is the influence which the theology of this period had on the later periods of philosophy especially during the time of Plato and Aristotle. This influence was to such extent that the later philosophers were speaking of gods and the matter of imagination and analogy too has always been propounded in Greece.
When Aristotle proves the multiplicity of gods by means of multiplicity of movement he coincides his ancestors gods with immutable essences (original movers). He says: “On account of the former ones and ancient forefathers you have like a heritance remained in your place in the form of a myth… He imagined that the original essences are the gods.” (Aristotle - Metaphysics)
Chapter Two: Period of Commencement of Philosophy
The birthplace of Greek philosophy and the foremost Greek philosophers were among the people of 'Ayooniya' Miltus was the cradle of 'Ayooniyus' philosophy because it was in Miltus that Thales the first famous 'Ayooniyus' philosopher sparkled. The philosophers of 'Ayooniya' were deeply under the influence of variable affairs, nativity and development, disintegration and death. However, m as much as these philosophers have employed their mind and intellect in explaining the Universe they have paid attention to this point that in spite of every change and transition a thing should have a firm and steadfast existence since change is from one thing to another. Thus a thing which is prior, fundamental and remaining and takes different forms should be existing. The philosophy and cosmology of 'Ayooni' is basically an endeavour in making clear the point that what is the first agent or the matter of (all) the matters and the source of each and every thing.
The thinkers of 'Ayooniya' were having differences in the nature of “matter of (all) the matters” but all of them were unanimous in its being material. Thales was of the opinion that it was water, Anaximans believed it was air, Heraculitis reckoned it to be fire and so on… (History of Kapilstan's philosophy; vol. 1; first part from Pg. 25 onwards)
In the philosophy and reflection of this period, the matter of God and theology is not propounded, the witness being that some words and references about gods have been narrated by some of these thinkers.[10]
In other words, the belief in God, which was propounded in all the periods, was still not given a place in the mould of philosophical system.
Basically, during this period science and philosophy were not yet distinguished from one another and scientific and philosophical research too were mostly concentrated in finding the original agent in the material world and this situation continued up to the time of Socrates and sophists. Rational theology had still not a solemn place in the reflection of the Greeks and whatever has been related with regard to God in the rational forms and figures and in philosophical orderly reflection are very insignificant and imperfect which the best specimen of that can be found in the philosophy of 'Anaxagoras'.
About him, Aristotle says as such: “In this manner whenever a person would say that intellect is the cause of regularity and order in the entire nature just as it is in the animals, then as against the aimless sayings of the past people, he is considered to be a wise man. We certainly know that Anaxagoras was having this opinion. In spite of this, it is believed that 'Hermutimus' the native of Klazumanai has spoken about that more than him.” (Aristotle - Metaphysics; Pg. 14-15)
Anaxagoras uses intellect as a mechanical tool in the making of Universe and whenever he became helpless in the explanation of the cause of existence then, out of necessity he would bring intellect in the forefront. But in other instances he reckoned (other) things and not intellect to be the cause of events. (Same source: Pg. 17)
'Parmenides' who was one of the philosophers prior to Anaxagoras disbelieved the presence of any kind of movement in life and in this way he created problems for the future thinkers. As such, every thinker after him who reflected in the affairs of life and nature, instead of conceiving movement to be a certain and undeniable reality had to strive hard in its explanation and justification.
Anaxagoras who had imagined the picture of life in the beginning (intermixed in numerous forms) to be from innumerable and static matter, when faced with the matter of power or the power which is entrusted with giving movement to the original mass and creating the things of the world, introduced the principle of 'Nus'.
'Nus' in distinct moments, gives the initial shake to that unlimited mass and becomes the cause of spinning and rotation, which accomplishes in various break-up of the original matter and then continues its motion till it results in the formation of happenings of nature. Thereafter 'Nus' in between becomes alien and idle and perhaps becomes only a spectator to the factory of existence. (“The first Greek philosophers”- Dr. Sharaf; Pg. 409-412)
With regard to 'Nus' there are a few points, which are worthy of attention.
1) According to Aristotle, whenever Anaxagoras would get stuck up in explaining something, he would bring intellect in the forefront.
2) On the one hand 'Nus' (intellect) is possessing divine attributes like 'infiniteness' 'free-will', 'independent subsistent' and 'regulator of the Universe' but on the other hand Anaxagoras ascribes attributes like 'the most delicate things' and 'place being incumbent' to 'Nus'. It is for this reason that it is said Anaxagoras has not gone further than imagining a bodily principle. Aristotle too likens 'Nus' to a mechanical tool.
3) Even if we accept 'Nus' as one philosophical god, this god is not entrusted with sufficient role in this world and secondly it passes through the channel of simile and imagination and thus Nus like the other things of the world possesses a place. (History of Kapilstan's philosophy; vol. 1; first part; Pg. K 95-101)
Such kind of defective philosophical theology had been propounded in a more defective form at the time of Anaximanas, Kasnufanas and Heraculitis (much before Anaxagoras).
Over here we mention in brief the philosophical theology of these three philosophers.
Anaximanas: In his philosophical reflection, he imagined the source of the Universe to be the 'air'. On the other hand 'Anaximanas' determined air to be the God which is in existence and is great, unlimited and always in motion. He says 'that the air is God' and even the gods too 'have come into existence from air'. (The First Greek Philosophers; Pg. 147)
In this way, Anaximanas takes God in his philosophical mould and considers it (i.e. God) as equal with the original source of the Universe (i.e. air).
Kasnufanas: He says: “One God, the greatest god among all the gods and the humans which neither in figure nor in thinking is similar to the mortal creatures.” “A god which is static and firm in its place and which never moves.” (History of Kapilstan's philosophy; vol. 1; first parts; Pg. 69)
About him, Aristotle says as such: “By only paying attention to the entire cosmos, he says that one (To hen) is God (To Theon).” (Aristotle-Metaphysics; Pg. 22)
According to Aristotle's report, Kasnufanas believed in some kind of Unity of Existence and Oneness. It seems that he replaces 'Aarkhe' or the original source of the previous philosophers with Oneness and names it as God and considers God too as equal to the Universe. In this regard Plato says that according to Kasnufanas “Whatever we can name the entire things they are the creation of One.”
In none of his sayings Kasnufanas shows what he means by God is something outside this world and his idea is a continuation and logical expansion of philosophical course of the 'Ayooniyus' thinkers who searched the source of existence in every place and every thing. (Same source; Pg. 167)
Heraculitis: He gives a more philosophical meaning to god after Kasnufanas.
The basic principles of his world-view (Ontology) and theology comprises of:
1) Existence in spite of its numerousness is one.
2) Oneness, born of contention is constantly in paradoxes.
3) Contrast and contradiction in existence is the very 'logos' or “the Universal everlasting laws.”
4) The world is constantly in the state of change and perfection.
5) The original source of the world is fire.[11])
6) According to Heraculitis, fire the everlasting rotator is god. He says: “The One, who only He is the wise, wishes to and also does not wish to be named by the name of Zayus.” “God is day, night, winter, summer, war, peace, statiety and hunger and changes in the form of fire such that whenever it is mixed with fumigation's then it is named according to the (particular) smell of each one of them.”
“This saying of Heraculitis has become the source of numerous research, debate and differences of opinion in its interpretation. The thing which can be clearly inferred is that the world and its various occurrences are countless manifestations of God.”
Heraculitis himself says: “All things are One.” (Same source; Pg. 239, 258 & 259)
In this manner, theology in rational and philosophical form, is one temporal matter in human civilization and culture. By philosophical theology is meant imagining God and proof of his existence in the mould of one rational system and giving shape to it based on the principle of this system. We shall witness the complete specimen of this kind of rational theology in the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.
Basically, such kinds of reflections are generated at the time when philosophical reflections have sufficiently developed in the field of 'beings' and the philosophical systems are on the verge of growth and expansion.
Considering that the world of existence without God cannot be explained and justified, the matter of God finds its place in the philosophical systems. This matter can clearly be observed in the beginning of Greek philosophy.
In the initial stages of this period when philosophy had not yet adequately developed and the philosophical systems had not entered the scene, rational and philosophical theology and the matter of God was not at all propounded in its philosophical mould. Right from the time when philosophical system began to lay foot in the field of human culture and civilization, God too like other things, took a mental shape and philosophical color and it is precisely for this reason that the visualization of God, by gradual development of philosophical reflection, took birth from the mother of human mind and in the custody of human thoughts, it grew bigger and bigger.
The commencement of philosophy was conceiving of a birth which, for the first time flaunted in the form of 'Nus' (intellect) in the philosophy of Anaxagoras. It is for this reason that the philosophical portrait of God was born and in philosophies like the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle it requires ample of years for this powerless child to settle down and appear in the form of one rational and philosophical powerful God.
Chapter Three: Theology of Socrates
Speaking about the views of Socrates is indeed difficult. The description of one of his students by the name of 'Guznafun' is not compatible with the description of another of his student by the name of 'Plato' in all the instances. Similarly the depiction of Socrates which is presented in the first conversation of Plato is not the same as the Socrates propounded in the later depictions.
Nevertheless, if this certification of Aristotle that Socrates did not teach exemplary ideas is accepted, then the true Socrates is the same, which has been propounded in the primary works of Plato. As such, it would also have less contradiction with the descriptions of Guznafun. Previously, we had mentioned something about the aim and method of Socrates and it was explained that with the great attachment which Socrates had in the manner of ethics he intended to find a reliable base for ethics and finally reckoned this base to be the Universal and ethical definitions. According to him the manner of reaching this Universals is dialectics and discussion in the definitions so that one can move from a partial definition to a more general definition.
Aristotle explicitly asserts that Socrates was preoccupied with ethical matters and did not engage in the whole of nature. Rather he was in search of the whole in ethical fields and he was the first person who focussed contemplation of definition. (Aristotle - Metaphysics; Pg. 25 and 428)
The aim of Socrates was achieving a virtuous and ethical life and recognition and knowledge of the Universal definition, which is attained through dialectic and debates. On the other side, the specification of Socrates ethics is a relation, which is set forth between knowledge and virtue, meaning that a wise person, who knows what is the truth, also acts upon it. In other words, no person intentionally and by knowledge involves in evil actions. Thus, knowledge of the Universal definition is the necessary and adequate condition for a virtuous living.
Just as Aristotle used to state, there does not exists any weakness in the views of Socrates about ethics, obligation and responsibility because, there does not exists a possibility that after (achieving) knowledge of the definition, man does not act, due to moral vices, upon the necessities of 'Ma'refat' (gnostic knowledge). In other words, ethical qualities and habits are having no place in the philosophy of Socrates.
Now regardless of this that the necessary consideration between knowledge and action, self-love and essentials of man is towards perfection or other things, this result can be understood from the philosophy of Socrates that perfection and guidance of man lies in the knowledge (Ma'refat) of the Universal definition and the mechanism of guidance is dialectics.
The General Principles of Socrate's Theology
By paying attention to what was said earlier, the theology of Socrates is capable of being projected in few sentences:
1) In view of the fact that Socrates has not presented a philosophical system with regard to the world, rational philosophy too are not propounded in his philosophy.
2) More than any other thing, Socrates focussed his attention towards man and presented one ethical system for man.
3) Socrates reckoned the guidance and perfection of man to be in ethical and virtuous life and for the reason that virtue is necessary after acquiring knowledge of Universal definition and the fact that virtue is the same as knowledge, the perfection of man lies in recognizing the Universals.
4) According to Socrates, the mechanism of guidance is inductive dialectic with this meaning that dialectic and dialogue begins from partial definition and along with the contravention and confirmations which is mooted in relation to the definition, a Universal definition with regard to ethical actions is finally achieved.
5) In the view of Socrates, 'Ma'refat' (gnostic knowledge) is the same as virtue and 'Ma'refat' accompanies the virtue. Therefore, there remains no place for moral purification or striving for keeping aloof from mental vices or becoming endowed with spiritual habits. Ethical weakness, obligation and responsibility too are devoid of any meaning and is seen as a kind of practical compulsion in Socrates philosophy.
6) In the philosophy of Socrates God has not been given any place and for a prosperous living, man 15 needless of God, divine Prophets and religions and he should only bear the trouble of dialectics.
7) It is narrated that Socrates has spoken about the traditional Greek gods and similarly it has been narrated that Socrates had reckoned the human intellect to be a part of 'Universal intellect'. (History of Kapilstan's Philosophy; vol. 1; Pg. 160)
If these talks have been said on the part of Socrates, perhaps one can consider a role for gods or Universal intellect in the philosophy of ethics of Socrates, in such manner that the gods in the form of genetic and without sending the Prophets guide the intellect of man. Moreover, by paying attention to the other sayings of Socrates, the help of gods is either through presentation of intellect and or by means of placing the Universal definition, in the human soul and or in reminding the Universals.
Describing the differences of Socrates ethical system with the divine religions is outside the scope of this discussion. However, inasmuch as this system does not consider any place for sending of Messengers and the matter of divine rules and legislation's, its encounter with the divine religions becomes manifest. With regards to the origin of God's existence and His role in the Universe, Socrates has not narrated self-sufficient discussion and only some scattered words from him are at hand which indicate the multiplicity of gods. Hence its difference with the monotheism of religions. About 'Universal intellect' too, there is no explanation at hand.
On the whole, it can be said that Socrates is not the master of cosmology and theology. Rather, just as it has been said by Aristotle he was engaged more in ethics and his ethics too leave no place for the divine religions.
Chapter Four: Theology of Plato
The matter of God and Theology are among the complicated and vague matters in Plato's philosophy regarding which, many discussions and interpretations have taken place and these interpretations too have mostly been propounded on the basis of probability.
Regarding this, Plato himself in the treatise of 'Taima'oos' says: “It is difficult finding the creator and father of the Universe and in case of discovering Him, it is impossible to talk about Him with every one.” (History of Kapilstan's Philosophy; Pg. 247)
Moreover, in the treatise of 'Jamhur' he says: “The source of goodness lies in the farthest end of the world of rational ideas and one can see that with hardship.” (Plato - Jamhur)
Before the matter of God in Plato's philosophy is discussed, it is appropriate to cast a short glance over his philosophy. Just as it was said before, Plato believed that perceptible things are in the state of 'becoming' whereas rational recognition is with regard to those things which are in the state of 'are' and the constant Universals which intellect can recognize them, are existing in a world different from the perceptible and variable world.
These Universals or parables are placed with special arrangement and in an orderly manner in the world of exemplary ideas such that the more we go up in the chain of exemplary ideas the more encompassing and Universal parables we do achieve. On top of this is placed the 'absolute goodness' which according to the statement of Aristotle is the same as 'Oneness'.
On the other hand, Plato propounds the matter of 'Creator' or 'Demurage' for explaining the relation between the perceptible world and the rational world and the manner of formation of the perceptible world. “In the treatise of Tima'oos, Plato explicitly mentions that God or the Creator makes the things of this world according to the pattern of images (exemplary ideas).” (History of Kapilstan's Philosophy; vol. 1; Pg. 234)
“It cannot be denied that Plato speaks in 'Tima'oos' in such manner that as though the Creator (Demurage) i.e. the efficient cause of regularity in the Universe makes the things of this world out of images as an exemplary cause. Thus the image or exemplary ideas are completely separated from the Creator such that if we name the Creator as God we should then conclude that the images are not only far away from the things of this world but are also away from god.” (Same source; Pg. 238)
Till here it appears that the god of Plato is the very Creator or Demurage which is separate from the exemplary ideas and absolute goodness and its work is making the perceptible world from the pattern of exemplary ideas.
On the other hand, Aristotle states that in the view of Plato, 'Oneness' is the cause of (essence) of images” (Aristotle - Metaphysics; Pg. 26)
Plato himself says in the book of Jamhur that: “I suppose that the source of goodness is having a place in the farthest end of the world of rational ideas and it can be seen with great hardship. However if a person witnesses that, then he will inevitably admit that the source of every good and beauty is the same and the creator of illumination and center of light in the perceptible world is none other than that and the source of reality and intellect in the world of rational ideas too is the same.” (Book of Jamhur 7th section; Pg. 400, 401)
“In the same way one should acknowledge that those things too which are recognizable, not only acquire the quality of recognition from the source of goodness but their existence and essence too are from goodness. This is not withstanding the fact that goodness is not exactly as existence but with respect to power and greatness, it is by many degrees higher than existence.” (Same source 6th section; Pg. 384)
As such, in the philosophy of Plato we are faced with two gods: 'Creator' and 'absolute goodness'. Plato too in his sixth letter to his friends endorses this matter. In that letter he asks his friends “to swear faithfulness in the name of god who is the Leader of all present and future things and in the name of father of that Leader and Cause.” (History of Kapilstan's Philosophy; vol. 1; Part 1; Pg. 247)
This god and its father have been adapted to Demurage (Creator) and Absolute goodness (oneness).
Now let us see how in the view of Plato, people can recognize God. According to him, the real recognition is the very recognition of the Universals and image and the most Universal images too is Absolute goodness and Oneness which was the god of Plato and is placed on top of the image. It is to be seen as to how the recognition of image and Universals is to be acquired.
Plato narrates in detail the way of achieving the recognition of the image in the seventh book of Jamhuri: In the beginning of this book, he sets forth the famous example of the cave in the words of Socrates and then mentions that it is only the philosophers who have liberated themselves from the darkness of the cave and obtained the brightness of the sun and Absolute goodness.
Thereafter he continues and says: “A philosopher who has met Absolute goodness should come down to the territory of the captives and take over the reign of their affairs until a virtuous city is established and the people reach prosperity. However if someone wishes to become a philosopher and engage in witnessing the ideas, absolute goodness and god he should from before, pass through some stages.
The first knowledge, which Socrates[12] recommends is the knowledge of numbers and arithmatics. By means of this knowledge, the soul elevates from the environments of the transient world to the position of real perception. Concerning this, man can lead his soul to an upper world and incite it to reflect about the reality of numbers and not allow the soul to consider the numbers to be the agent of visible and perceptible things.
The second knowledge, which is recommended, is Geometry. Since the matter of geometry is an existing everlasting and subsistent knowledge it drives the soul towards the realities. Thereafter the geometry of space and stars are discussed. In this course the research moves from plane geometry to space geometry until it helps one philosopher in getting closer to the abstractional ideas through advancement from the next perusal of difficulty number two to the next perusal of difficulty number three.
The last stage in the premises of dialectic is the knowledge of voices and music. Of course, the emphasis is not on studying the voices itself but studying their relation between them. After successfully passing the above premises, a person is now worthy enough to participate in Dialectic (rational argumentation, debate and dispute) so that he is able to release himself completely from the shadows of the cave and is able to remember the rational ideas.
However, the debater should possess other qualities too which consist of: Will, courage, beauty, natural disposition, sharp-mind, memory, untiring aspirations, love towards every kind of work and physical and spiritual powers.
Of course the aged cannot pass this path because it is easier for the old to avoid rather than acquire knowledge and the difficult and heavy works should be entrusted to the young.
As such, the philosophers should learn the above teachings from childhood and till the age of eighteen they should have the primary knowledge of literature, music and mathematics. Thereafter till the age of twenty they should be given physical and military training. Then, for a period of ten years they should engage in mathematics and should by now put together those knowledge which they had learnt in a diversified manner in their childhood. At that time, the best are chosen and for five years, i.e. till the age of thirty-five, they should strive in acquiring the knowledge of debate. After that, he should spend fifteen years in acquiring methodical experiences until at the age of fifty, this selected person finally succeeds in meeting Absolute goodness. (Jamhur 7th section; Pg. 392-446)
|
