The History of Taṣawwuf and ‘Irfān

By: Reza Beranjkar
‘Irfān and mysticism in their general sense have a very long history. They manifested themselves in different forms in various cultures. However the subject of discussion here in this Section is only the ‘Islamic mysticism’ that emerged in the Muslim culture and is called ‘Irfān or Taṣawwuf. Today, Islamic mysticism is known by the name of Taṣawwuf throughout the world.
The universality of mystic thought among all the nations and world religions and as also the apparent conflict of some of the ideas and rules of Taṣawwuf with fundamentals of Islamic have given raise to this questions: whether the Islamic Taṣawwuf is influenced by other religions and alien thought?
There are three theories about this: two of these theories are on their extreme, and only one of these can be referred as is a midway theory. The first theory says that mysticism in the Islamic world has been borrowed from other nations and religions; and, then it was perfected in the Islamic culture. This theory has different versions19.
The other theory is that Taṣawwuf and mysticism originated from the teachings of the holy Qur’ān and Islamic Traditions: no other factor has any role in its emergence. Those, who hold this theory, believe that Taṣawwuf the real core of Islam; and, there is no conflict or contradiction between Islam and Taṣawwuf on general and particular issues.
The third theory, which is moderate and pursues the middle path, believes that the basis of Taṣawwuf is love of God and zuhd (piety). However, in its growth, Taṣawwuf has also been influenced by external ideas and by mystic thought of other nations. As regard the extent of external influence on Taṣawwuf and the ratio of authentic Islamic elements, there are different views. These need discussion that we shall pursue it by considering each of the principles of ‘Irfān and comparing them wit Islamic teachings, so that we can evaluate the harmonization of Taṣawwuf and ‘Irfān with Islam.
Here we would like to present a concise view of the development of Taṣawwuf within the Islamic culture as also its basis in fundamentals of Islam. In the same way, we will also refer to the formation of mystical theory and growth of theoretical discussion and also their logical and historical aspects.

Different Periods of Taṣawwuf:
The first and the most important Islamic teaching, which became the basis of emergence and growth of Taṣawwuf has been the concept of zuhd (piety). The ‘urafā and Ṣūfīs rely upon the Qur’anic verses and the Traditions that emphasized and laid stress on zuhd. Piety was interpreted as asceticism and tark-e dunyā (Renunciation of the World) by a group of early pious people. They rely on the Sīrah and life of the holy Prophet, his simple living and spiritual exercises, though some of them have committed serious errors due to lack of profound grounding in Tafsīr of Qur’anic Verses and the Traditions20. In any case, the Islamic concept of zuhd, became basis for inclination towards ascetic living in the Islamic world. In turn, it became the main ground of the emergence of Taṣawwuf.
Some other factors also played an important role in strengthening the spirit of asceticism and emergence of Taṣawwuf. One of these factors pertains to economics. Political and military victory and expansion of Islam in other lands brought extra-ordinary treasures in Islamic lands. This resulted in inclination and ambition towards materialistic life. All this resulted in emergence of social discrimination and gaps among the social classes. It generated a reaction on the part of the religious people and the pious. One group isolated itself from the society and withdrew into religious seminaries and monasteries, so that they could save themselves from the onslaught of materialism.
The second factor was bloody political and civil wars among the Muslims themselves, and the ultimate domination of Umayyad and Abbasids dynasties, both of them known for their tyranny, injustice and corruption. This led the religious people to think that being helpless to change this corrupt and tyrannical political order, the best way for them is to escape and take refuge in seminaries and monasteries and thus isolating themselves from society. They assumed that in this way, they would not only pass a peaceful life, but would also attain spirituality.
There was a group of Muslims, who thought that they are unable to know which of the two sides in the bloody civil wars is right and who is wrong? They thought that the best way is to leave both of them and engage themselves in religious education, worship and spiritual exercises. One of the instances is that of Ḥasan Baṣrī, who was the precursor of Ṣūfīs. He went into seclusion, so that he may not be forced to take sides with Imām ‘Alī or Muāvīya22.
The external factors like the Christians monasticism also played role. Shaikh ‘Aṭṭār narrates Ḥasan Baṣrī’s views after his visiting Rome and how on reaching there what he witnessed in the Romans, made him leave the worldly career of his business and devote himself fully to asceticism and spiritual exercises23. Some of the habits of Ṣūfīs like wearing white silken dress, faith monasticism, continuous fasting, vegetarianism, and keeping also from the people were clearly borrowed from Christian monks. They used to visit Muslims and Muslim used to visit Christian lands. It was in this way, they influenced mystical movement25.
We can classify the development of Taṣawwuf in five phases, as given hereunder:

The First Period:
the first period of development of Taṣawwuf1 can be referred as the period of extreme asceticism and total ‘tark-e-dunyā’(renunciation of world). This period extended from the first century to a part of the second century Hijrī. Among the distinguished personalities of this period, we can name Ḥasan Baṣri and Rābi’ā ‘Adavīya.
The writing culture among the Islamic mystics starts with Ḥasan Baṣrī (b. 110 A.H). He authored a book titled Ri’āyah Ḥuqūq Allāh. This is the first primary book on Taṣawwuf. Nicholson says that the first Muslim, who wrote about the method of Ṣūfī life, was Ḥasan Baṣrī. Some of the Islamic mystics, consider Ḥasan Baṣrī as the originator of their spiritual ṭarīqah (order), viz., the ṭarīqah of Abū Sa’īd Abul Khair27. On the other hand, Qāsim Ghanī believes that the real Taṣawwuf started with Rābi’a ‘Adavīya, though it reached its zenith in the third century28. Abdur Raḥmān Badawī believes that Rābi’a1 is the first person, who spoke about the Divine Love and fanā fillāh in the meaning of self-annihilation29. In the same way, she for the first time spoke about the Unity of Being or Waḥdat-al-Wujūd in a very simple and symbolic way30.

The Second Period:
The second period of the development of Taṣawwuf starts from the time when Ṣūfīs developed into a distinct group and institution. Peculiar etiquettes, like wearing silken dress and love for establishing monasteries (khānqāhs) emerged in this period. It gave them a distinct social identity and thus distinguished them from other Muslims. It was from this period that the name Ṣūfī began to be applied to this group.
It is usually said that Abū Hāshim Ṣūfī, who lived in the second century, was the first person, who was known by the nomenclature of Ṣūfī. We don’t know the date of his death. He lived during the time of Sufyān Thūrī, and was his teacher. As Sufyān died in the year 161 A.H., it seems that the use of the nomenclature Taṣawwuf started in the first half of the second century A.H. However, it is said that the use of the word Ṣūfī became in common usage at the end of the second century A.H; and, that the Ṣūfīs became a distinct class31.
It is generally known that the first khānqāh or Ṣūfī monastery was established in this period in the Ramla region of Syria by a Christian Chief. 32
Among the distinguished personalities of this periods we can name Abū Hāshim Ṣūfī, Sufyān Thūrī, Ibrāhīm Adham (born in about 161 A.H.) Shaqīq Balkhī (born 153 or 174 or 184 AH) Ma’rūf Karkhī and Fuzail Bin ‘Ayāz (b. 187 A.H).
The main characteristics of this period was ethical and practical nature of Ṣūfism and the emergence of certain norms and etiquettes. In this period Ṣūfīs came to be recognized as distinct school of thought and became a sect. So for as theoretical mysticism of this period is concerned we do not have any authentic work, except the scattered saying of Ṣūfīs.

The Third period:
This period started from the late third century and continued in the seventh century up to the time of Muḥyuddīn Ibn ‘Arabī. This period starts with the teaching of persons like Zunnūn Miṣrī (b. 245 A.H) Sirri Saqtī (b. 253 A,H) and Bāyazīd Bustāmī (b. 261 A.H), Junaid Baghdādī (b. 297 AH) and Ḥallāj (born 309 AH).
This period constitutes an important stage of Taṣawwuf and ‘Irfān. The practical and theoretical ‘Irfān emerged as a branch of knowledge in this period. Many of the main characteristics of Taṣawwuf became manifest. In view of the importance of this period we take to detailed discussion pertaining to the main features of this period and also its role in the growth of Ṣūfism and the theory of ‘Irfān. To make things evident, we shall dwell upon the views of some of the master of Taṣawwuf.
The main characteristics of this period is compilation of theoretical mysticism and presentation of the mystical theories like waḥdat-ul-wujūd33 and fanā fillāh. Some of the practical and social aspects of Taṣawwuf became less important in this period. Junaid Baghdādī who was founder of the new movement of Taṣawwuf in third and fourth century and is called Sayyid-al-ṭāifa (Chief of the group) 34 by the Ṣūfīs left the rag silken dress of the Ṣūfīs and took up the dress of ‘Ulamā (clergy) and said áیÓ ÇáÇÚÊÈÇÑ ÈÇáÎÑÞå¡ ÇäãÇ ÇáÇÚÊÈÇÑ ÈÇáÍÑÞå (the Ṣūfī cloak has no worth , what has worth is the inner fire)35 Zunnūn Miṣrī may be considers as founder of the third generation of Ṣūfīs in a way. Nicolson considered him as the complier of the theory of Taṣawwuf and believes that he has greatest influence on the formation of Ṣūfī thought36. Jāmī describes him as “the leader of his time, unique in his age and the chief of the group. There were many masters before him but he was the first who consolidated the inner truth”37.
Zunnūn laid a great emphases on ‘Irfān and knowledge. He believed that the goal of the Ṣūfī life is reaching to the state of ma’rifat (gnosis). This is the stage where the truths became manifest and Ṣūfī know it through intuition. However intellect and reason have no relevance in this kind of esoteric knowledge. This cannot be discovered except by the special devotees, who are endowed with the inner insight38.
Zunnūn is the first person who introduced Tauḥīd in its monistic interpretation, in Ṣūfī concepts and spoke about unity of being or waḥdat e wujūd. His famous saying is the “knower and the Known are the same or lover, Beloved and Love are the same”. Later, Bāyazīd Bustāmī and Shaikh Abū Sa’īd explained this theory of waḥdat Al wujūd with greater detail. However apparently it was Zunnūn who pronounced it for the first time39.
In the saying that have been narrated from Zunnūn, we have the definitions of wajd (ecstasy) and samā’