Invalidity of the Syllogism Used by the Polytheists:
At the end of this section it would be useful to briefly point out the reason for the falsity of the exceptional syllogism used by the polytheists and quoted in Surat al-`An`am, Surat al Nahl, and Surat al-Zuhkruf of the Qur'an. The reason for the falsity of the exceptional syllogism in question is that it does not distinguish between God's creative will (al-'iradah al-takwiniyyah), and His legislative will (al 'iradah al-tashri'iyyah). The "creative will" of God is irresistible, to it belongs the law of causality which determines processes and phenomena.
His "legislative will" consists of commands, instructions and advices, which although obligatory do not compel or determine human behaviour. Therefore, the will of God which man has no choice but to obey is al-`iradah al-takwiniyyah, while al-'iradah al-tashri'iyyah of God is related to human action by virtue of the human being's freedom and free will. The whole cosmic system was created by God through His "creative will" and is governed by Him on the basis of His qada` (Divine Destiny) and qadar (Providence), irrespective of whether someone is a polytheist or not.
Schools of thought and points of view have no bear ing on this aspect of the Divine will and are irrelevant to its function. However, the legislative will of God ordains al-tawhid as the right faith for the human being. Here man has a choice; he can obey or `rebel. He can either follow the instruction and the guidance given to him by God or he can ignore it and worship the idols. In both of these cases, however, his action is not incompatible with the will of God. That is why it is not possible to say that if it were Divine will that men should worship the One God and abstain from idolatry, men would not have practised polytheism and would not have forbidden things in the name of law.
In short, the major and the minor premises do not mutually necessitate each other in this exceptional syllogism. With the absence of mutual necessity between the minor and the major premises, the syllogism does not lead to the fallacious conclusion drawn from it. This is why the Holy Qur'an has considered polytheism to be a product of ignorance and has mentioned it as something unjustifiable by either science or reason:
....But if they strive to make thee associate with Me something of which thou hast no knowledge, then obey them not .... (29:8)
And:
But `if they [the parents; obedience to whom is emphasized by the Qur'an] strive with thee to make thee ascribe unto Me as partner that of which thou host no knowledge, then obey them not .... (31:15)
The reason for the fact that the Qur'an considers polytheism and 'similar other schools of thought merely to be by-products of ignorance and as being scientifically unjustifiable, is that they cling to things which have no objective existence; what is non-existent is devoid of reality and has no place in knowledge and science. This idea is expresآ­sed in Surat Yunus in the following manner:
....Would you inform Allah of (something) that He knoweth not in the heavens or in the earth? ....(10:18)
What God, the All-knowing, does not know must surely be non-existent. Then in Surat al-Mu'min the Qur'an quotes a prophet as asking the idolaters:
....and [shall IJ ascribe unto Him as partners that whereof I have no knowledge? .... (40:42)
Polytheism, in this verse, is alluded to as a pretension to know what is basically non-existent.

Fifth Example
The Holy Qur'an recognizes no other standard for either imitation or reason than definitive reason and definitive Revelation, and considers legitimate only that which is either proved by definitive reason or defiآ­nitive Revelation. Following and imitation or leadership and guidance that are based on neither of these two, are considered by the Qur'an to be nothing but empty and fruitless opposition to truth, the end result of which is following the devil into deviation, misguidance and decepآ­tion.
The Qur'an encharges the human being to investigate and reason about his actions. He should either investigate the matter himself, or, if he is not able to do this must follow those who carry out research and investigation in a particular field. Such an imitation is itself a form of investigation; because it is a judgement of definitive reason that if a man is, unable to investigate, something which requires action on his part, he must follow the judgement of those who do investigate such matters.
If he, does not follow the judgement of those investigators, but his own inclinations, or Imitates the views of non-investigators, his judgement would be of no value; because it is neither ,directly or indirectly supported by research and investigation. Moreover, a judgement not based on investigation lacks firm foundations, and is shaky. Because of this shakiness, such judgements, in the vocabulary of the Qur'an, are referred to as "rumours" in Surat al-'A`raf:
....Those who spread rumours in the city .... (33:60)
As far as leaders in matters of belief and opinion are concerts their leadership must be based either on scientific and rational investigation or on Divine Revelation. The fact that these two are mention side by side is another indication of their mutual supportive role and harmonious relationship. The Qur'an stresses the necessity for investigation and wholesome imitation in these wards:
And among mankind there is such a one who disputes concerning God without knowledge, and follows every rebellious Satan. (22:3)
It stresses investigation and inquiry as being necessary for opinion leaders:
And among mankind there is such a one who disputes concerning God without knowledge or guidance or an illuminating Book, turning away in pride to lead astray (men) from the way of God; for him is degradation in this world, and on the Day of Resurrection We shall let him taste the chastisement of fire. (22:8-9)
In dealing with the question of imitation, the Holy Qur'an considers blind imitation to be following the lead of the devil. Since this kind of blind following has no foundations, it changes according to the circumstances of the moment, following one devil today, and another devil tomorrow. Therefore, the 4lind imitator is the follower of numerous devils. This, is. why the Qur'an says, "disputes without knowledge, and follows every rebellions devil."
As to intellectual and ideological leadership, the Qur'anic viewpoint is that if leadership is not based on certain acquired knowledge, or logical and definitive reasoning, or valid mystical experience of the `arif, or on self-purification, and sincere and devout action performed for the sake of God, or on Divine Revelation, its investigation and inquiry is false and deceptive, bringing for the opinion leaders disrepute in this world -and burning fire in the next one. This is why it says, " ....without knowledge or guidance or an illuminating Book." By "knowledge" it is apparently referring to definitive rational evidence, and by "guidance" it means the direct perception of the truth available to the purified soul of an `arif which is attained as the result of great effort and which leads to reception of Divine guidance. [8] This is what is implied in yet another verse:
As for those who strive in Us, We surety guide them to Our paths; and God is with the good-doers. (29:69)
The phrase, "an illuminating Book", refers to Revelation and prophethood. Thus, if intellectual leadership is not in agreement with rational evidence, or correct mystical insight, or the Holy Qur'an, it would be nothing more than a futile and misleading exercise. It is here that the coherence and unity of Revelation and definitive reason becomes evident. If the only source of acquisition of knowledge were Revelation, the Holy Qur'an would not have set forth numerous sources and ways, and would not have mentioned "knowledge" and "guidآ­ance" alongside the "illuminating Book".
Moreover, this also calls attention to the. fact that the proof of the necessity of Revelation, its distinction from other sources which are not Divinely revealed, and its comprehensiveness in coverage of reality, can not be attested by Revelation itself, since that would be begging the question. That the proof of these things has been left to definitive reason, implies the validity of the authority of reason. [9]
In short, by paying close attention to the verses of Surat al Hajj, Surat Luqman (verse 20) and certain other Qur'anic Surahs, the independent authority of reason and the validity of definitive rational evidence becomes clearly evident and the mutual supportive and harmonious relationship between reason and Revelation becomes fully established.

Sixth Example
The Holy Qur'an considers rational evidence and definitive knowledge to be evidence of the truth of Divine Revelation. It says that correct rational reasoning invariably affirms the authentic validity of Revelation and that definitive knowledge leads to acceptance of Divine Revelation.
Those who have been given knowledge see that what has been Revealed to thee from thy Lord is the Truth, and guides to the path of the All-mighty, the All Laudable (34:6)
What this verse means is that all those who are knowledgeable about Divine matters and who make judgements based on definitive evidence believe in the authenticity and validity of Revelation and the` Qur'an. They believe that the Qur'an guides men to the path leading toy God, to whom belongs all power and praise.
This interpretation implies that denial of Revelation is caused by a lack of definitive knowledge. In other words, it is ignorance which causes one to deny the validity and the legitimacy of the Qur'an. This is also the case in the problems practical philosophy (al-hikmah al-`amaliyyah); it is rational and systematic knowledge that determines the ethical values and it is ignorance that denies absolute moral standards and criteria explaining them on false and hollow foundations:
Then went he forth before his people in his pomp ,Those who were desirous of the life of the world said: `Ah, would that we possessed the like of that Koran has been given. Surely he is a man of mighty fortune .'But those who, had been given knowledge said: `Woe unto you, the reward of God is better, for him who believes and works righteousness; and none shall receive it except the steadfast.' (28:79-80)
Thus, the standard by which a system of values is determined and arrived at is through reason and certain knowledge; just as real knowledge is only arrived at through definitive evidence. That learning which does not take into consideration Divine truths and fails to discover the real system of values, is imperfect and unreliable. Such learning is considered to have little value by the Qur'an:.
So turn thou [O Muhammad] from him whom turns away from Our Remembrance and desires only the life of the world. That is their sum of knowledge ... (53:29-30)

Revelation and Resurrection of the Human Sciences
Although Revelation and reason are complementary and not contradictory in the sense that demonstrative reason is relatively sufficient, or even perfect, for the perception and the understanding of realities - Divine Revelation is necessary and more complete than demonstrative reason for perfect, and definitive understanding, of the totality of existence. Therefore, what is' discovered: by demonstrative reason is supported and confirmed by Revelation, and what is inaccessible to reason is revealed to it by Revelation. Revelation stimulates reason and, guides it so that it can discover things through investigation and inference.
What reason is potentially capable of knowing becomes actualized for it through the guidance and inspiration of Divine Revelation. What reason perceives but dimly is made clear and precise for it by Revelation. In short, `Revelation completes reason and compensates for its shortcomings and weaknesses. Amir al-Mu'minin Ali (A), has spoken of the role of prophets in relation to thought and culture in the following terms:
...... To stimulate and active the dormant deposits of reason and to reveal it to the manifestations of his Omnipotence ... [10]
It is therefore, in the light of Revelation that reason realizes its complete role and function, grows under its nourishment, and obtains far reaching vision. This is because Revelation is the Word of God, Who encompasses the entire universe, and His Word is as universal as His knowledge. Thus when God speaks of any part of the universe, He so describes it that its relationship with the totality of existence, is also described, and it is also made clear that the totality of existence, too, has a direct link with its Ultimate Source, so that one can clearly comprehend the relationship of a part with the First Cause.
In the same way, when God speaks of something, He does not limit His description to its matter and form, its genus, differentia or species, its history, or its various material transformations; His description of objects is not a circular and tautological definition. In other words, His descriptions are not confined to a single plane, the place of the physical world.
This is to remind that some of the experimental sciences merely deal with description of the past history and present state of a particular material phenomenon, its possible future transformations in time space, its constitution, movement and other such characteristics. All such descriptions and observations are confined to a single plane. In other words, their investigation is confined to the inner mechanics of a closed system.
For example, in biology, medicine, geology, astronomy and other branches of the experimental sciences, and also some of the social sciences, discussion is limited to describing the past, the present, and the predictable future of a phenomenon and is confined to the closed system of "internal structure" of an object, without any reference being made to its relationship with the rest of the universe.
For instance, when certain mineral deposits are studied in geology and a discussion is made about the professes by which the deposits are formed underground, the various stages in the history of their development their present state, and their future course of change, nothing is said about the "efficient cause" that created such deposits: Nor is it ever asked whether this cause is itself a phenomenon caused by some other phenomenon, which relates by a series of causes and effects to a Source which is the Necessary Being (wajib al-wujud), whose Existence is the same as its Essence, which is completely self-sufficient and can fulfil the needs of all other things, which are incomplete.
Nothing is said about the purpose of the existence of this phenomenon, whether the purpose is itself another phenomenon with yet another purpose, whether the chain of such purposes must end with an aim which is the Necessary which is infinitely perfect and whose perfection and purpose of being are not separate from Its Essence, which is the Ultimate Purpose of all those things that have a purpose. In short, nothing is said about the ultimate end of a thing and no attempt is made to place it in a universal perspective of purpose (telic and teleological perspectives).
The experimental sciences and some of the human sciences concern themselves with only the internal structure of phenomena, leaving the question of their ultimate purpose and efficient cause to the field of metaphysics. Therefore, all things are viewed in isolation and separation from their ultimate origin and end (al-mabda' wa al-ma`ad). Obviously, even though all researches carried out in these fields of study enrich our knowledge about the internal structure of the object being studied; they tell us nothing about its origin and purpose.
Limiting the study of natural phenomena to their internal structure and ignoring the ultimate origin and purpose of things, result in deficient description and interpretation of these phenomena. This is the cause of innumerable difficulties and shortcomings in our understanding of the nature of reality, whose unfortunate signs and consequences can be observed in today's world of reason without Revelation and knowledge without vision.
Revelation, however, considers all things to be 'signs' (ayat) pointing to the ultimate origin of the world; besides describing the internal structure of an object, its history; present state and future course of development, it also discusses its place in a perspective of origination and ultimate end; that is, it makes a vertical movement that cuts across the horizontal physical plane.
Thus the systems of "efficient cause" (al-illah al-fa`iliyyah) and "final cause" (al-`illah'al gha'iyyah) act as two wings attached to the body of the experimental science (study of internal structure) helping it to break out of a static earth bound state and enabling it to fly in the infinite skies of the Divine world outlook. It encourages it to rise to ever higher altitudes and guides it on a the best course of ascent. For example, the following Qur'anic verse alludes to all the three aspects of the natural phenomena mentioned above:
....Our Lord is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright. (20:50)
That is, our Lord has given everything its inner structure, equipped it with its means of attaining perfection, and then guided it towards its real goal.
The same sort of approach towards the phenomena of this world can be seen throughout the Qur'an. In this manner the two wings of origination (al-`illah al-fa`iliyyah) and ultimate purpose (al-`illah alآ­gha'iyyah) are revived and rejuvenated in all the research being earned out about these phenomena.
In this way, the Holy Qur'an turns knowledge into reason, reason into wisdom, and mental conceptions into verities. This is the fashion in which the Qur'an coordinates the findings of theoretical reason with the effort of practical reason, and objectifies what were intellectual and subjective conceptions. Finally, it is by these means that the Qur'an turns a specialist into a man of religion, a scientific researcher into a practical investigator, a scientific "authority" into a devotee of the Truth, a technical inventor into a committed believer, an industrial entrepreneur into a man of faith, thus transforming raw mind into a seasoned intellect.
Below are given few examples of the blossoming of sciences in the light of Divine Revelation.

First Example
Explaining the creation of the heavens and their stability without reliance on any visible columns and the orderly system of the moon; the Qur'an says:
God is He who raised up the heavens without visible supports, then mounted the Throne. He subjected the sun and the moon each one running to a term stated. He directs the affair; He distinguishes the signs; haply you will have faith in the encounter with your Lord. (13:2)
In this verse, besides describing the inner structure of the heavens and the planets, the system of efficient causes and the system of final cause is also pointed to. In other words, both monotheism and the Day of Resurrection (al-tawhid and al-ma'ad) are spoken of.

Second Example
In explaining the genesis of the earth and the emergence of the mountains, and the way various trees and fruits grow and mature deriving nourishment from the same substances by their roots; it says,
It is He who spread out the earth and set therein firm mountains and ricers; and of every fruit he placed therein two Pairs. He covereth the night with the day. Surely, in that are signs for people who reflect. And in the earth are neighbouring tracts, vineyards and fields sown, and palms in pairs, and palms single, which are watered with one water. And some of them We prefer in produce above others. Surely in that are signs for a people who understand. If thou wouldst wonder, surely wonderful is their saying, `What, when we are dust, shall we indeed then be raised up again in new creation?' ....(13:3-5)
Thus we see that, in this chapter, the Qur'an not only describes the inner structure of the earth, mountains and rivers, the world of vegetaآ­tion, etc., but it also mentions them in a perspective of efficient cause
And of final cause. That is, both unity of creation (al-tawhid) and the ultimate end (al ma`ad) are fully taken into account.
The way; however, that the causal perspective is described in the first and the second verses is not the same. In the first verse the chain of causation is described moving from unity to multiplicity: it was the One God who stretched out the earth and caused the mountains to emerge and the rivers to flow; etc. But in the second verse the description moves from multiplicity to unity; here we have an earth which is divided into many adjacent tracts and in each tract there is a particular garden in which grow trees bearing particular fruits; the gardens and the tracts resemble one another and the trees derive nourishment from one vital fluid: water. This movement from multiplicity to unity in nature guides the intelligent observer towards the realization of the One Source. After this, the Qur'an describes resurrection and the problem of re-creation after death.

Third Example
Describing the coming into being of cattle, the way that they should be taken care of, the way that domesticated animals are to be used, and the beauty of scenes of the herds going to pasture and returnآ­ing from it, and other problems relating to domesticated animals and related, matters, it says:
....And the cattle He created them for you; in them is warmth, and uses various, and of them you eat, and there is beauty in them for you, when you bring them home to rest and when you take, them out to pasture and they bear your loads for you unto a land you could not reach save with great trouble to yourselves. Surely, your Lord is All-clement, All compassionate. And horses, and mules, and asses (He has created) for you to ride; and as an adornment; and He creates what you know not. (16:5-8)
In the verse just mentioned, besides describing the inner structure of the emergence and development of herds, their system of efficient cause (which is the same as al-tawhid) is also pointed out. Then after these verses, the Holy Qur'an refers to the system of final cause of all these things:
Your God is One God. But as for those who believe not in the Hereafter their hearts deny, and they have waxed proud. (16:22)

Fourth Example
Explaining the appearance of clouds, their concentration, the dropping of rain from their midst, their formation in the sky, so that they resemble heavenly mountains, the pouring of hail from the way lightning strikes, other problems in regard to the order of night day, and describing the genesis of various animals, the Qur'an says;
Hast thou not seen how God drives the clouds, then composes them,; then makes them layers, and thou seest the rain come forth from between them? He sends down from the heaven mountains (of clouds) wherein is hail, and He smites therewith whom He will, and turns it aside from whom He will; well nigh the gleam of His lightning snatches away the sight. God turns about the day and the night; surely in that is a lesson for those who have eyes. God has created every animal of water, and some of them go upon their bellies and some of them go upon two feet, and some of them go upon four. God creates whatever He will; God is powerful over everything. Verily We have sent down revelations and explained them; God guides whomsoever He will to a straight path. (24:43-46)
Thus we see that in the verses just quoted, the causal structure and the ultimate destiny and end of all the things under consideration are described. That is, while describing the inner structure of these natural phenomena, the formation of clouds, the pouring down of rain, the, hail, the lightning, etc., it is pointed out that the chain of efficient n causes behind their emergence leads to God, who is the Creator, the Nourisher of all things. The natural phenomena are referred to as ayat (signs); reference is also made to guidance towards the straight path .. that leads to the ultimate purpose of all life, which is nothing other than God.
All the three perspectives are thus taken into account; the causal perspective, the inner structure, and the perspective of goal and purpose. In short, in explaining the things of this world, while the Holy Qur'an gives us a brief but useful description of their inner structure, it so considers their causal background and their ultimate destiny. In fact, the emphasis of the Qur'an is on explaining the starting point and the ending point in the vertical ascent of a thing; that is, the starting point of all things in the view of the Qur'an is the One God, and their ending point is the Hereafter. The Qur'an does not consider the description and explanation of the inner structure of a thing to be by itself a full and complete explanation of that thing.

Sciences and the Guiding Role of Revelation:
In conclusion I would like to mention some examples of the flowering of human knowledge in the light of Divine Revelation,. in order to show the effect of the heavenly teachings on man's thought and knowledge.

First Example
What man gains through intellectual effort is power over the natural phenomena. His intellect, however, does not provide him with the adequate guidelines of use of this power. This is the task of Divine Revelation. It sets before man the proper goals for attainment of which human powers must be channeled. For example, it states the following as a general rule:
....(The believers) are hard against the unbelievers and merciful among themآ­selves.... (48:29)
With this general guidance the manner in which all the energies of the community-material and spiritual-are to be used, is indicated:

Second Example
When, through a Divine miracle, hard and cold iron was made soft and forgeable in the hands of Prophet David (A), Divine Revelation instructs him that iron must be used in making defensive weapons and not destructive ones:
...And We made the iron supple unto him; saying: 'Make' thou long coats of mail and measure the links (thereof). And do ye righteousness, for surely I see the things you do. (34:10-11)
The important point here is that a hard metal such as iron is to be turned not into a destructive weapon, but into the best defensive tool, and that what could have been a powerful offensive weapon must be turned into the most delicate instrument of defense. In short, two aspects are taken into consideration strength of iron and its use interest of the people:
....And We sent down iron, wherein is great might, and uses for mankind (57:25)
Thus, the aspect of iron which is emphasized is its usefulness to man and not its possible use in killing and destroying.

Third Example
Whenever war breaks out between two unrighteous, or, two non Muslim adversaries and there is a big demand for weapons, all those human crafts and techniques which are at the disposal and service of worldly and short-term profits are activated to make weapons and sell them. Divine Revelation, however, clearly delineates the path that one should take in response to such events.
It instructs man to put into the hands of two adversaries only defensive equipment, even though both of them may be unrighteous Muslims or unbelievers. Hisham quotes Muhammad ibn Qays as saying: "I asked Imam al Sadiq (A): `If two groups of unbelievers go to war against each other,' should I sell arms to .them or, not?' He:. answered: `Sell : defensive weapons to both of them.'
I asked Abu `Abd Allah (A) whether I could sell weapons to two unrighteous groups at war. He said: "Sell to both of them protective gear such as shields, greaves, and so on. [11]
This is a humane and an Islamic command which does not allow anyone to profit from a human tragedy such as war by selling offensive and destructive weapons to warring factions, thus encouraging bloodآ­shed and destruction, or by taking the side of one party against the other make it possible for one particular group to gain hegemony and establish its domination over others.
The duty of the man who has been liberated from bondage of greed and myriads of desires, rivalries, jealousies and corruptions, is to take an even-handed approach towards warring parties and to sell defensive weapons and equipment to both of them. His motivation for doing so should be to help save lives and to prevent destruction and blood-shed by selling to warring parties things at protect human beings from injury and death.

Fourth Example
The model and the proper form of Islamic government was explained by Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali (A) in a directive given 'to Malik al-Ashtar. In this order, Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali (A) clearly delineates the nature of the commitments of his government and the way political power is to be used. He also states that the power of the government should never be used outside the boundaries set by justice and fairness:
(O Malik) do not rule (the people of Egypt) like a predatory beast who is always looking for a chance to devour them. (Do not trespass the sacred boundaries of justice) because they are either your brethren in faith, or follow men of your own kind. [12]
In this political directive the flowering and perfection of the art of government, which comes under the category of "practical philosophy" and is one of the most important of human sciences, is clearly evident. Here, Imam 'Ali (A) has limited the power of the State to that which falls within the boundaries of justice and the rights of the people. He does not allow transgression from its sacred tenets even towards the non-Muslims. This is nothing other than the perfection of the art of government in the light of Divine Revelation.
In conclusion, we should keep in mind that the mission of the Islamic Cultural Revolution is to walk on the path that has been described above, so that the social sciences, humanities, and the experimental sciences may all attain their highest pinnacle and the highest degree of flowering and development possible for them.
It is therefore necessary that, while the "inner structure" of the various specialties is studied, their "causal perspective" and their "perspective of purpose" the understanding of which brings about religious comآ­mitment and obedience-also be taken into account and entered into the university curricula so that science may flower into wisdom, and expertise, may be infused by religious commitment.
Notes:
[1]. See `Allamah Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai's exegesis al-Mizan, v, 273
[2]. The Qur'an, 8:24.
[3]. Ibid., 2:269, 39:9 3:66, 4:157, 6:144, 6:119, 6:140, 11:46, 22:8, 24:15, 45:24, 53:28, 20:114.
[4]. Ibid., 91:8.
[5]. Al-Kulayni, al-Kafi, "Kitab al-'ilm".
[6]. Ibid., "Kitab al-'aql wa al-jahl".
[7]. Ibid.
[8]. The well-known hadith of the Prophet (S) regarding the practical results of a forty-day sincere devotion to God is another witness to what we have hadith says: Whoever sincerely devotes himself to God for forty days, God shall cause springs of wisdom to emanate from his heart flowing to his tongue.
[9]. See `Allamah Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, al-Mizan, xiv, 382 xvi, 242
[10]. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 1. [11]. Shaykh Muhammad ibn al-Hurr al-`Amili, Wasa il al-Shi'ah, xii, 70
[12]. Nahj al-balaghah, epistle 53.