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The History of Taṣawwuf and ‘Irfān
By: Reza Beranjkar
‘Irfān and mysticism in their general sense have a very long history. They manifested themselves in different forms in various cultures. However the subject of discussion here in this Section is only the ‘Islamic mysticism’ that emerged in the Muslim culture and is called ‘Irfān or Taṣawwuf. Today, Islamic mysticism is known by the name of Taṣawwuf throughout the world.
The universality of mystic thought among all the nations and world religions and as also the apparent conflict of some of the ideas and rules of Taṣawwuf with fundamentals of Islamic have given raise to this questions: whether the Islamic Taṣawwuf is influenced by other religions and alien thought?
There are three theories about this: two of these theories are on their extreme, and only one of these can be referred as is a midway theory. The first theory says that mysticism in the Islamic world has been borrowed from other nations and religions; and, then it was perfected in the Islamic culture. This theory has different versions19.
The other theory is that Taṣawwuf and mysticism originated from the teachings of the holy Qur’ān and Islamic Traditions: no other factor has any role in its emergence. Those, who hold this theory, believe that Taṣawwuf the real core of Islam; and, there is no conflict or contradiction between Islam and Taṣawwuf on general and particular issues.
The third theory, which is moderate and pursues the middle path, believes that the basis of Taṣawwuf is love of God and zuhd (piety). However, in its growth, Taṣawwuf has also been influenced by external ideas and by mystic thought of other nations. As regard the extent of external influence on Taṣawwuf and the ratio of authentic Islamic elements, there are different views. These need discussion that we shall pursue it by considering each of the principles of ‘Irfān and comparing them wit Islamic teachings, so that we can evaluate the harmonization of Taṣawwuf and ‘Irfān with Islam.
Here we would like to present a concise view of the development of Taṣawwuf within the Islamic culture as also its basis in fundamentals of Islam. In the same way, we will also refer to the formation of mystical theory and growth of theoretical discussion and also their logical and historical aspects.
Different Periods of Taṣawwuf:
The first and the most important Islamic teaching, which became the basis of emergence and growth of Taṣawwuf has been the concept of zuhd (piety). The ‘urafā and Ṣūfīs rely upon the Qur’anic verses and the Traditions that emphasized and laid stress on zuhd. Piety was interpreted as asceticism and tark-e dunyā (Renunciation of the World) by a group of early pious people. They rely on the Sīrah and life of the holy Prophet, his simple living and spiritual exercises, though some of them have committed serious errors due to lack of profound grounding in Tafsīr of Qur’anic Verses and the Traditions20. In any case, the Islamic concept of zuhd, became basis for inclination towards ascetic living in the Islamic world. In turn, it became the main ground of the emergence of Taṣawwuf.
Some other factors also played an important role in strengthening the spirit of asceticism and emergence of Taṣawwuf. One of these factors pertains to economics. Political and military victory and expansion of Islam in other lands brought extra-ordinary treasures in Islamic lands. This resulted in inclination and ambition towards materialistic life. All this resulted in emergence of social discrimination and gaps among the social classes. It generated a reaction on the part of the religious people and the pious. One group isolated itself from the society and withdrew into religious seminaries and monasteries, so that they could save themselves from the onslaught of materialism.
The second factor was bloody political and civil wars among the Muslims themselves, and the ultimate domination of Umayyad and Abbasids dynasties, both of them known for their tyranny, injustice and corruption. This led the religious people to think that being helpless to change this corrupt and tyrannical political order, the best way for them is to escape and take refuge in seminaries and monasteries and thus isolating themselves from society. They assumed that in this way, they would not only pass a peaceful life, but would also attain spirituality.
There was a group of Muslims, who thought that they are unable to know which of the two sides in the bloody civil wars is right and who is wrong? They thought that the best way is to leave both of them and engage themselves in religious education, worship and spiritual exercises. One of the instances is that of Ḥasan Baṣrī, who was the precursor of Ṣūfīs. He went into seclusion, so that he may not be forced to take sides with Imām ‘Alī or Muāvīya22.
The external factors like the Christians monasticism also played role. Shaikh ‘Aṭṭār narrates Ḥasan Baṣrī’s views after his visiting Rome and how on reaching there what he witnessed in the Romans, made him leave the worldly career of his business and devote himself fully to asceticism and spiritual exercises23. Some of the habits of Ṣūfīs like wearing white silken dress, faith monasticism, continuous fasting, vegetarianism, and keeping also from the people were clearly borrowed from Christian monks. They used to visit Muslims and Muslim used to visit Christian lands. It was in this way, they influenced mystical movement25.
We can classify the development of Taṣawwuf in five phases, as given hereunder:
The First Period:
the first period of development of Taṣawwuf1 can be referred as the period of extreme asceticism and total ‘tark-e-dunyā’(renunciation of world). This period extended from the first century to a part of the second century Hijrī. Among the distinguished personalities of this period, we can name Ḥasan Baṣri and Rābi’ā ‘Adavīya.
The writing culture among the Islamic mystics starts with Ḥasan Baṣrī (b. 110 A.H). He authored a book titled Ri’āyah Ḥuqūq Allāh. This is the first primary book on Taṣawwuf. Nicholson says that the first Muslim, who wrote about the method of Ṣūfī life, was Ḥasan Baṣrī. Some of the Islamic mystics, consider Ḥasan Baṣrī as the originator of their spiritual ṭarīqah (order), viz., the ṭarīqah of Abū Sa’īd Abul Khair27. On the other hand, Qāsim Ghanī believes that the real Taṣawwuf started with Rābi’a ‘Adavīya, though it reached its zenith in the third century28. Abdur Raḥmān Badawī believes that Rābi’a1 is the first person, who spoke about the Divine Love and fanā fillāh in the meaning of self-annihilation29. In the same way, she for the first time spoke about the Unity of Being or Waḥdat-al-Wujūd in a very simple and symbolic way30.
The Second Period:
The second period of the development of Taṣawwuf starts from the time when Ṣūfīs developed into a distinct group and institution. Peculiar etiquettes, like wearing silken dress and love for establishing monasteries (khānqāhs) emerged in this period. It gave them a distinct social identity and thus distinguished them from other Muslims. It was from this period that the name Ṣūfī began to be applied to this group.
It is usually said that Abū Hāshim Ṣūfī, who lived in the second century, was the first person, who was known by the nomenclature of Ṣūfī. We don’t know the date of his death. He lived during the time of Sufyān Thūrī, and was his teacher. As Sufyān died in the year 161 A.H., it seems that the use of the nomenclature Taṣawwuf started in the first half of the second century A.H. However, it is said that the use of the word Ṣūfī became in common usage at the end of the second century A.H; and, that the Ṣūfīs became a distinct class31.
It is generally known that the first khānqāh or Ṣūfī monastery was established in this period in the Ramla region of Syria by a Christian Chief. 32
Among the distinguished personalities of this periods we can name Abū Hāshim Ṣūfī, Sufyān Thūrī, Ibrāhīm Adham (born in about 161 A.H.) Shaqīq Balkhī (born 153 or 174 or 184 AH) Ma’rūf Karkhī and Fuzail Bin ‘Ayāz (b. 187 A.H).
The main characteristics of this period was ethical and practical nature of Ṣūfism and the emergence of certain norms and etiquettes. In this period Ṣūfīs came to be recognized as distinct school of thought and became a sect. So for as theoretical mysticism of this period is concerned we do not have any authentic work, except the scattered saying of Ṣūfīs.
The Third period:
This period started from the late third century and continued in the seventh century up to the time of Muḥyuddīn Ibn ‘Arabī. This period starts with the teaching of persons like Zunnūn Miṣrī (b. 245 A.H) Sirri Saqtī (b. 253 A,H) and Bāyazīd Bustāmī (b. 261 A.H), Junaid Baghdādī (b. 297 AH) and Ḥallāj (born 309 AH).
This period constitutes an important stage of Taṣawwuf and ‘Irfān. The practical and theoretical ‘Irfān emerged as a branch of knowledge in this period. Many of the main characteristics of Taṣawwuf became manifest. In view of the importance of this period we take to detailed discussion pertaining to the main features of this period and also its role in the growth of Ṣūfism and the theory of ‘Irfān. To make things evident, we shall dwell upon the views of some of the master of Taṣawwuf.
The main characteristics of this period is compilation of theoretical mysticism and presentation of the mystical theories like waḥdat-ul-wujūd33 and fanā fillāh. Some of the practical and social aspects of Taṣawwuf became less important in this period. Junaid Baghdādī who was founder of the new movement of Taṣawwuf in third and fourth century and is called Sayyid-al-ṭāifa (Chief of the group) 34 by the Ṣūfīs left the rag silken dress of the Ṣūfīs and took up the dress of ‘Ulamā (clergy) and said áیÓ ÇáÇÚÊÈÇÑ ÈÇáÎÑÞå¡ ÇäãÇ ÇáÇÚÊÈÇÑ ÈÇáÍÑÞå (the Ṣūfī cloak has no worth , what has worth is the inner fire)35 Zunnūn Miṣrī may be considers as founder of the third generation of Ṣūfīs in a way. Nicolson considered him as the complier of the theory of Taṣawwuf and believes that he has greatest influence on the formation of Ṣūfī thought36. Jāmī describes him as “the leader of his time, unique in his age and the chief of the group. There were many masters before him but he was the first who consolidated the inner truth”37.
Zunnūn laid a great emphases on ‘Irfān and knowledge. He believed that the goal of the Ṣūfī life is reaching to the state of ma’rifat (gnosis). This is the stage where the truths became manifest and Ṣūfī know it through intuition. However intellect and reason have no relevance in this kind of esoteric knowledge. This cannot be discovered except by the special devotees, who are endowed with the inner insight38.
Zunnūn is the first person who introduced Tauḥīd in its monistic interpretation, in Ṣūfī concepts and spoke about unity of being or waḥdat e wujūd. His famous saying is the “knower and the Known are the same or lover, Beloved and Love are the same”. Later, Bāyazīd Bustāmī and Shaikh Abū Sa’īd explained this theory of waḥdat Al wujūd with greater detail. However apparently it was Zunnūn who pronounced it for the first time39.
In the saying that have been narrated from Zunnūn, we have the definitions of wajd (ecstasy) and samā’ #7778;ūfī music)40. Some scholars believe that many of the teachings of neo-Platonic philosophers entered in the Islamic mysticism and ‘Irfān through Zunnūn 41.
One of the characteristics of this period is that the mystical issues were expressed in symbolic language. Zunnūn Miṣrī was the person who employed the symbolic language42; though the symbolic and metaphorical language was used by the Ṣūfīs from the very beginning43.
Bāyazīd Busṭāmī was the most famous Ṣūfī of third century AH. He was from Busṭām in Khurāsān. He passed a large part of his age in that region. According to Winfield44, Bāyazīd had the greatest influence in the formation of Islamic mystical thoughts45.
Nicholson says Bāyazīd was the first who used the term fanā in an exact and precise mystical sense of annihilation of human soul unto the Eternal Being through a process of Love. He may be considered the person who founded the School of fanā46. The sayings of Bāyazīd, that has been narrated, show he believed in Unity of Being and in fanā fillāh (annihilation of mortal being in God) . Some of his sentences are as follows: “ I am God, there is no God, except me, so worship me47 praise to me how great is my shān (grandeur)48. Such apparent blasphemous utterances need explanation and can be interpreted only in the mystic concept of waḥdat al wujūd..
During this period two different methods and schools became prevalent among the Ṣūfīs, one was called the method of ṣaḥw and the other was called the method of Sukr. Qushairī defined two terms in the following manner: ṣaḥw is alertness and return from the ‘state’ of bīkhabarī (intoxication) while sukr is the state of intoxication i(bīkhabarī) due to intense spiritual feeling and the awareness of the Divine. This is a state of wāridāt. What is meant by wāridāt: is a ‘state’ of spiritual ecstasy, which comes to the heart of a mystic involuntarily 49.
Literally, sukr means is intoxication. What is meant by intoxication in mysticism is a special ‘state’ through which a Ṣūfī advances in his spiritual journey. In this ‘state’ he is not in his senses but is completely drunk in love of God. Therefore his acts and sayings cannot be understood merely by intellect and reason, and even may seem sometimes blasphemous for he is totally intoxicated50. From the point of view of mystics, the state of sukr or intoxication comes at the moment, when a mystic sees the light of God through the eyes of his heart. This dissolves his identity. Thus, this intoxication is result of love, and love is the result of his feeling, and his feeling is the result of Grace of God. Therefore a mystic does not inter in this ‘state’ on his own will, rather it is by the Grace of God52.
The literal meaning of ṣaḥw is alertness. Terminologically, it is indicative of returning to senses from the ‘state’ of ecstasy and intoxication.. Ṣaḥw can be known only as the opposite of the state of sukr53. If the ‘state’ of intoxication of the mystic comes, as the result of Divine Grace, then the state of alertness or return to his senses is also due to Grace of God. The state of ‘alertness’ is not like the ‘state’ of intoxication. It is also not like ‘state’ prior to which he entered in the state of Sukr. But it is a higher ‘state’ and has all that, which is indicative of perfection of the ‘state’ of intoxication. The mystic having all the ‘positive effects’ of the ‘state’ of intoxication, return to the his senses54.
The distinguished examples of the school of sukr is Bāyazīd Bustāmī, Ḥallāj and Abū Sa’īd Abul Khair. The distinguished representative of the School of ṣaḥw is Junaid Bagdādī. Most of the Ṣūfīs follow the method of ṣaḥw. Bāyazīd Bustāmī considers ṣaḥw as an attributes of man and a veil between and ‘sight’ of God. He considers sukr (ecstasy) as the ‘state’ which purifies man from his human imperfection; dissolves his will and makes the Will of God rule his whole being55. On the other hand Junaid Baghdādī considers sukr as one of dangers, and believes that sukr is such a dangerous ‘state’ that if the mystic leaved the consideration of health and moderation; he will be destroyed and his insight will not benefit him at all56.
Shatḥ ( ÔØÍ) (blasphemous utterances) is one of the characteristics of the School of sukr. In this state the mystic utters astonishing words, which take one nearer to kufr. This is called shatḥ. Such sayings by some of the mystics like Bāyazīd, Ḥallāj and Abū Sa’īd Abul Khair were mainly the cause that many fuqahā (the clergymen and experts of shrīah) considering Sufis as Kāfir (heretics). They gave many fatwās (edicts) in excommunication (takfīr) of Ṣūfīs. However, those, who believe in the ṣaḥw, try to interpret these shatḥīyāt of the intoxicated mystics in symbolic way in order to make them accord with religion and Sharīah.
Side by side with above mentioned trends, one of the other characteristic of the third phase was marked by a group of Ṣūfīs to harmonize Ṭaṣawwuf with the views and teachings of Islām, in their quest and to help prove that they correspond to the Islamic teachings. Junaid Baghdādī tried very hard to explain shaṭḥīyat of Bāyazīd Busṭāmī; and, it is said, he wrote a book on this subject57. Abū Naṣr Sarrāj (b. 378 A.H.) says in the definition of shaṭḥ: at the time, when the mystic is in a state of ecstasy and is unable to bear the Divine Reality which is revealed to his heart, he utters words and sentences which seem very complex and bewildering, and the audience cannot understand it. Terminologically, these are called shaṭḥ58. Junaid Baghdādī, was one of the leading figures of the School of ṣaḥw. ‘Aṭṭār calls him Sayyyid al-Ṭāifa (leader of the group) and Lisān ul Qoum (spokesman of the group). Ṣūfī masters of Baghdād followed this School during his life and in the later period also59. Khwāja ‘Abdullāh Anṣārī says about Junaid: “when junaid appeared, he systematize this knowledge and expanded it and wrote books in this science”60. Junaid was among the moderate Ṣufīs. He tried to harmonize Taṣawwuf which Sharīah in all respects. He made inner meditation, purification of heart and having good moral virtues as the foundation of his Ṣūfī way61.
Here, we should also mention Ḥallāj also, who was the other pole of Junaid. Ḥusain Ibn Manṣūr Ḥallāj was one of the most controversial Islamic mystics. He is famous for his intoxicated utterances (shaṭḥīyāt)62. For this reason, he was accused of kufr (apostasy). The religious scholars ex-communicated him and considered him Kāfir. During the life of Muqtadir the ‘Abbāsid caliph, he was hanged in the year 306 A.H., or 309 A.H. What has been recorded from him, shows that he believed in waḥdat al wujūd i.e., the unity of man’s being with the Being of God, and the unity of mystic with the Divine Self. Following are some of his intoxicated signs “ḥaq, ḥaq, ḥaq! I am the ḥaq (the Truth i.e. God),” and “I am who destroyed the nation of ‘Ād and Thamūd”65.
From fifth century onwards, gradually poetry became prevalent among the mystics, and the mystical terms entered into the corpus of poetry. Likewise, it was in this period that the monasteries (khānqāh) building was expanded and these increased in numbers.
Abu Sa’ī Abul Khair (b. 440 A.H) is the most famous mystic of the fifth century A.H. He was among those, who followed the method of sukr and he is famous for his intoxicated sayings. It is narrated from him that while speaking, he said: “There is none in my coat, except Allah” and then signed at his coat and his dress66. Prominent among his utterances about waḥdat al wujūd is this one: “there is nothing here, except Allah”67
Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad Ghazzālī (b. 505 A.H) is also counted among the famous mystics of the fifth century A.H. He was also from among the group of ṣaḥw. In his famous work, Iḥyā ul ‘Ulūm, he made the greatest attempt to harmonize Sharī’at and Ṭarīqat #7778;ūfī way). Thus, he played a leading role in making Ṭarīqat acceptable to religious people. He laid greatest emphasis on concentration of the heart in acts of worship and on following the precepts of Sharī’at. In this way, he brought ‘Irfān and ethics in the domain of Sharī’at.
In the sixth century Taṣawwuf became very popular and most of the kings and chiefs supported the Ṣūfīs. However, there also arose opposition to Taṣawwuf in this century. For instance, Abul Faraj Ibn Jauzī (b. 597 A.H), who is among the leading theologian of the sixth century A.H., assaulted the Taṣawwuf and made an endeavor to refute it in his book, Talbīs Iblīs ( ÊáÈیÓ ÇÈáیÓ).
The Fourth Period:
this period starts from the seventh century A.H. During this period, distinguished mystics appeared. These included Najmuddīn Kubrā (b. 616 A.H), Farīduddīn ‘Aṭṭār (b. between 626 to 628 A.H), the author of the book Tazkiratul ul Auliyā, Suharwardī (b. 632 A.H), author of the book ‘Awārif al-Ma’ārif. Ṣūfī personalities of this period including Ṣadruddīn Muḥammad Qūnawī (b. 672 A.H). one of the greatest interpreter of the ideas of Ibn ‘Arabī There also appeared, poets of the standard of Ḥāfiz, Ibn Fāriḍ Miṣrī (b. 632 A.H), and Maulānā Jalāluddīn Rūmī. However, the main personality of this age is Muḥyuddīn Ibn ‘Arabī (b. 638 A.H), the greatest Muslim theosophist. It is due to him that mysticism entered a new stage. Ibn ‘Arabī expanded and explained the beliefs of the mystics, which were in a scattered till that date. He described the mystical ideas in a philosophical and rational way, turning them into philosophical discourse. Later mystics usually borrowed from him. In fact, they did nothing, except dwelling upon Ibn ‘Arabī’s ideas. What is known as the theoretical ‘Irfān in the Islamic culture today, is in fact, represents the views of Ibn ‘Arabī.
Ibn ‘Arabī was born in the year 560 A.H. at Marsiya, in South Spain. He died in the year 638 A.H. in Damascus, Syria. In Islamic world, he is known as Shaikh-e Akbar (the grand master) and as Muḥyuddīn (who brought religion to life). His works consists of more than two hundred books and epistles. His magnum opus is his book Futūhāt-e Makkīya. In fact, It is an encyclopedia of ‘Irfān. His other book, Fuṣūṣ ul Ḥikam, is counted among the most important teaching texts in the field of mysticism.
The views of Ibn ‘Arabī were propagated most of all by Ṣadruddīn Qūnawī, who was among the nearest friends of Rūmī. He is considered the link between Ibn ‘Arabī and Rūmī. Some scholars consider Mathnavī of Rūmī as the Futūhāt of Persian language. Ṣadruddīn was teacher of Quṭubuddīn Sarrāj, who was the interpreter of the book Ḥikmat al Ishrāq. He entered into correspondence with Khwāja Naṣīruddīn Ṭūsī on the fundamental issues of Philosophy.
Sayed Ḥaider Āmulī, Ibn Abī Jamhūr His and Ibn Taraka are the three other important personalities, who propagated Theosophy of Ibn ‘Arabī in the Shī’a world. They had great impact on the later philosophers including Mullā Ṣadrā.
The Fifth Period:
This last period started after the 9th century A.H. It is during this period that distinction was made between ‘Irfān and Taṣawwuf. Up to this time, different Schools of Ṣūfīs were led by the distinguished intellectuals and academic personalities, who produced many valuable works. However, from this time Taṣsawwuf become a professional way of monasteries (khānqāhs). The Ṣūfī personalities were no more distinguished in theosophy and theoretical mysticism... However, a distinguishing characteristic of this period is that there were some ṣūfī masters who followed the path of mysticism in accordance with sharī’ah. They were practical Ṣūfī masters but did not follow the ways of Ṣūfīs but lived s ordinary Muslims or as ‘ulamā. They abstained from extreme positions. They did not pay any attention to formal rites and etiquettes of Ṣūfīs. They even criticized them. Including among these where some masters of fiqh also, who followed all the rules of sharī’ah. This trend has a long history. Here we can not deal in detail.68.
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